Our old coalition allies are making peace with France. England is reinforcing its navy – ‘the wooden walls of England’. Our army is being withdrawn from Europe. The gift of regiments offered by the India Company to the King was found to be unconstitutional and has been commuted to a money payment which will be used to pay a bounty to prospective seamen.
Twelve of the Company’s chartered Indiamen have been taken up by government to form a fleet, reportedly for the protection of India. The Company proposes to charter a comparable amount of tonnage in India to remedy the shortage to its commercial department. This will be welcome news to British shipowners in the Presidencies given the present stagnation of Indian trade.
Sat 27th June 1795
The Company’s London sales commenced in January. The auctions were not proceeding well until Swiss orders on French account pushed-up prices 10%. The French are obliged to send specie to all the neutral ports to obtain those necessaries that they do not produce at home – sugar, coffee, cotton, tobacco. Surat cotton started at 11d per pound then, with receipt of the continental orders, improved to 13d. Some fine qualities even sold at 14d.
Sat 27th June 1795
Letter from Toulon, 2nd June – a great body of French troops has arrived overland. They are everywhere. Their artillery arrived by sea. The crews of the grand fleet are all embarked and it is expected to sail soon. We do not know where this enormous force is going. Some say it will bombard Leghorn and cut off British trade with the Levant. Others say it is to reconquer Corsica.
A businessman at Toulon, Mr Manesty (same name as the Company’s Resident at Basra), says the force was intended for Corsica until the naval element was attacked and beaten by Vice Admiral Hotham.
Sat 27th June 1795
Journal Generale de Frankfurt has compared the naval strengths of France and England:
Between 1st Feb 93 – 26th Dec 94 the English seized 373 French ships, including those from Toulon. They have taken 21 from the Spanish and 4 from the Dutch. These c. 400 ships include 69 warships exclusive of many privateers.
On the other hand, the French have taken 820 British ships, 101 Dutch and 36 Spanish. These include 7 warships.
At the close of the period in Dec 1794 the British navy comprised 124 ships-of-the-line (55 under repair or building), 180 frigates and 50 smaller ships of 12 – 16 guns. The French have 67 ships-of-the-line and 75 frigates.
Sat 27th June 1795
Prince Philip of Hesse-Hombourg and Prince Weld were taken prisoner towards the end of the Dutch campaign. They are detained in the Luxembourg in Paris. They are held as hostages for the release of General Bournonville, the former War Minister, and the French legislators whom Dumourier delivered to Austria.
Sat 27th June 1795
The Dutch employ a Swiss regiment at Colombo.1 These people hold French principles and have subverted the trade of the port. The Dutch governor now sleeps in the fortress with his Dutch soldiers who are not yet influenced. This Swiss regiment was formerly at the Cape but its behaviour was so wild as to induce the Dutch governor there, van der Graaf, to send it to Colombo. To accomplish this van der Graaf first had to arrest several of the regimental officers. The rank and file are a cosmopolitan group.
Sat 27th June 1795
Letter from Lyons, 12th Dec – all our émigrés have returned and are re-establishing their factories. Many of them left in 1791. Every one of them says he regrets the past and looks forward to the future.
Sat 27th June 1795
Letter from Grenoble, 14th Dec – the nobility and others have been released and their property restored to them. de Chaleon, a noble Deputy to the Assembly, was amongst the first to be arrested but is now released. Many émigrés are returning and hope for the same relief. They portray themselves as misled rather than culpable. The same occurrence has happened in Dauphiny and Provence. Moderation is taking hold in all these places.
Sat 27th June 1795
The 71 Deputies (including Paine) who have been re-admitted to the National Convention under the new moderate leadership have published their Protest against the events of 31st May 1793:
“We were branded as accomplices of the conspirators and evicted. That faction had an armed force of Parisians under its control. They used violence to seize power and loot the treasury and national resources. They held an overriding control of all the decisions of National Convention. They superseded the functions of the representatives and intimidated them.
“The National Convention was changed from a representative organ of the people into their own plaything. They gave unlimited powers to the Commissioners whom they sent to the army generals and the departments and provided no subsequent check on their activities. Their project failed on the night of 10th/11th March 1793 but was ultimately successful in May and early June.
“At that time they closed Paris, inspected all letters, put cannon at every junction around the National Convention and deployed 60,000 armed men in the capital, men who were intended for the liberation of La Vendee. Their assassins were lurking in every corner of the National Palace.
“As the National Convention membership approached en masse to its council chamber, that faction demanded the surrender of 32 deputies to the vengeance of the people. This proceeding was purportedly justified by a decree authorised by a mere one sixth of the National Convention members and was enforced by armed might. Those 32 Deputies were exiled or imprisoned without charge or trial.
“The remaining signatories to this Protest then seceded from the government of France.”
Sat 4th July 1795
Dublin Castle 24th Nov 1794 - Thomas Graves and Sir Alexander Hood have been made hereditary barons in the Irish peerage. They are both admirals of the Blue Squadron.
Sat 4th July 1795
Dr Bolman, a Hanoverian subject, wished to release la Fayette. At Vienna he received permission to attend la Fayette as a medical specialist to see what effects his long confinement had caused. Bolman prescribed air and exercise. He arranged for la Fayette to take carriage trips accompanied by his friend de la Tour Malberge and a guard. Later he got the guard to agree that la Fayette might walk a short distance. They sent the carriage away.
Then Dr Bolman and his servant set upon and restrained the guard. They had la Fayette and de la Tour Malberge mount the carriage horses and provided them with money. They indicated where the prisoners would find another carriage to take them further away. The Doctor left by another route. Eventually the guard released himself and raised the alarm. The mountain passes were closed.
Bolman was caught at the Silesian frontier but la Fayette and de la Tour Malberge escaped.
Sat 4th July 1795
National Convention, 2nd Dec 1794 – A decree was issued today pardoning the Royalists in La Vendee. All rebels in La Vendee who lay down their arms within the next month will receive amnesty for their revolt. They will deposit their arms at the nearest municipality. Deputies will attend and observe the process:
“For two years there has been civil war. You who preferred masters to brothers, fanaticism to reason, should put an end to calamity. The National Convention, in the name of your generous nation, forgives you. Disarm and sincerely repent. Do not gratify our enemies with this continued schism. The guns they gave you cannot dissolve the chains of blood that link you to us. Ignore the English.”
On receiving this, the head insurgent at Morbihan contacted General Humbert of the revolutionary army to discuss the matter in a forest. They talked two days and then went to Nantes to formalise their agreement. At Fort de la Roche in late Jan a similar rapprochement occurred. No muskets were fired, no plundering took place and most Royalists were persuaded to abandon their struggle.
Not all agreed. At Chateauneuf on 18th Jan 1795 a gunfight occurred and the cry ‘vive le Roi’ was heard.
Sat 25th July 1795
London press commentary:
The demise of Jacobin power has not induced a return to monarchy as some predicted. On the contrary the French revere their Republic more than ever. The moderates have been zealous to repair all the Jacobin damage – they have enacted five unifying measures:
An amnesty to the Royalists in La Vendee,
A qualification of the penal restrictions on émigrés and priests,
Permitted performance of public worship,
Encouragement of trade and industry and
The unlimited freedom of the press.
The last winter 94/95 was very severe and the Jacobins sought to use it to criticise the National Convention moderates, noting the expense and scarcity of provisions. The moderates called for a report and Boissy d’Anglas told them shortages were real but would end quickly. It turns out he was right and supplies are now arriving. Paris is relieved.
The stimulation of the press by National Convention policy has caused newspapers to flourish in France. The National Convention member Mercier publishes a paper and prints 15,000 copies each day. He recently commented on a suggestion of La Croix that the French people are disposed to resume the Constitution of 1791 - “The passing of the old government is not regretted. The people have seen atrocious tyranny ordered by their representatives and they desperately regret that, but no-one regrets the end of the ancien regime.”
Priests call those who question them ‘atheists’ and politicians called opponents ‘Royalists’ but these expressions have become mere debating terms.
The people want tranquillity, nothing more. If the Deputies act tyrannically, the people will arm themselves and oppose; Montesquieu said that moderation established on virtue is the soul of a Republican government. Now we have overwhelmed a tyrant we should know better than to imitate him. We have sworn to be free. We know no liberty but that guaranteed by equity and Republican law. The Constitution of 1791 did not address these fundamental principles of the social contract. It is the absurd and fatal production of intrigue. It supposes rights without security, powers without liberty, forces without equilibrium, effort without direction, monarchy without aristocracy, democracy without equality. Unsurprisingly, it lasted for less than a year.
Sat 25th July 1795
The Aldermen of the City of London sent an Address to George III on 28th Jan:
“Your war aims remain unaccomplished. We hope peace will be re-established soon, consistent with the national honour, dignity and security. We support you.”
Sat 25th July 1795
Recent news from the Netherlands:
The Provisional Representatives of the people have published a report on the Bank of Amsterdam to satisfy the commercial interests of the Dutch people. The bank is not in deficit; assets and liabilities balance but in lieu of specie in the Treasury there is an immense volume of Bonds that have been deposited as security, some for over 50 years. These have accumulated to a prodigious extent. A small part (227,264 florins) involves Bonds which have been defaced but repayment of all remaining Bonds are now required as they are guaranteed by the town. No further specie may be drawn from the Bank. This is necessary to maintain its reputation and secure its customers.
The popular representatives of the French Army of the North have made a requisition on the Dutch: “The army needs food and clothing. We do not chose to employ agents in order to minimise inconvenience. We ask the States General to supply us in a month with 200,000 quintals of wheat, 5 million bushels of corn, 200,000 shirts, 150,000 pantaloons, 40,000 breeches, 50,000 hats, straw, hay, etc., and 20,000 oxen in 2 months. Please do not perplex the inhabitants with your demand. We will pay (in assignats) for what we receive.”
All the inhabitants of Amsterdam and Rotterdam have troops quartered on them. Only the Danish and Swedish consuls (neutrals supplying provisions to France) are exempt.
Sat 25th July 1795
Col Ramsey has returned to London from the Netherlands on 13th Feb. He has been checking the condition of the 700 British prisoners whom we left there when our army was ejected. They have been well-treated by the French.
When a Doctor suggested port wine would improve the condition of some men, the French General Bergeron sent to Rotterdam and procured a supply (NB this wine supply was billed to Britain at £36,000 or £50 per man). As the men recover, they are sent to inland Dutch towns to convalesce, not to France as had hitherto been supposed. Our hospital staff live completely unrestricted and may return to England should they desire it.
Ramsey says French influence in the Netherlands is mild. Capt Flynn was allowed to land 7 chests of medicine which Ramsey wanted for the patients. The French are scrupulously protecting Dutch property - a soldier who took the hat of a Dutchman was shot. The Dutch flag still flies over the docks and port and on the ships but the tricolor is hoisted on churches. All the French whom he met expressed a desire for peace with England. Many of the French officers believed a similar social Revolution is developing in England.
Sat 1st August 1795
Paris – Mercier’s newspaper has an interesting article on religion. The National Convention debated the subject in late February. Mercier notes that religion seeks a refuge in the hearts of men. It may not be overtly professed but it is there. Republicanism is a political system. It has no connection with religion. The profession of atheism by Republicans is unnecessary, Mercier says.
The National Convention debate resulted in a Decree permitting worship. The Republic will not pay for it. No churches or priest’s houses will be provided. No religious dress or regalia may be worn in public. No public marks promoting this or that religion are permitted. No land or money may be donated to religious groups. Public ceremonies are forbidden. Congregations will be regulated by the gendarmerie.
Sat 1st August 1795
The National Convention has heard that there are now totally 6,000 million livres in assignats in circulation. Cambon proposed that the legislators start withdrawing them. Vernier wished to restore confidence in financial matters – we should convince Europe that we will honour the assignats. A light land tax will reassure everyone. Calling in the assignats should not provoke apprehension as their mortgage (on all the national property) is 15,000 million livres.
Thibault noted the scurrilous activities of stock-jobbers. These people assemble daily at the Palais d’Égalité and conspire to depreciate government paper. Recently I watched their concerted influence on the market. The gold Louis which was worth 121 livres at the outset, was advanced to 132 livres by their influence. Having drawn-in other speculators with the increasing price, they take profit and disband the conspiracy. The jobbers are an organised group of speculators representing an army of retired people. They gamble the retirees’ capital in this game. It is not just gold and silver prices that are effected, they also manipulate the provisions market. They buy up anything that has been securitised on which a plausible rumour of impending shortage or surfeit in supply can be published.2
The Deputies agreed that the relevant Committees should observe the speculators and investigate whether a public stock exchange like Amsterdam’s might be more transparent.
Sat 1st August 1795
Letter from Brussels, 28th Jan 1795 – The French conquest of the Pay Bas has been profitable. 150 British merchantmen have been seized in the ports. 400 cannon and materiel for an army of 200,000 has been captured by the French. The dockyards of Rotterdam and Amsterdam are suitable for the construction of warships. The Dutch warehouses of the British Admiralty and the India Company have not yet been touched. The Stadtholder’s army has dispersed into the islands of Zeeland. The French are selecting a cadre of suitable young Dutchmen for tuition in the Normal schools around Paris. The Representatives require Brussels to provide 5 million livres before month end.
Sat 15th Aug 1795
Recent London newspapers say Pitt resigned the ministry for 1½ days when the King demanded the Duke of York be again nominated to command the British army. The King was intransigent as usual and Pitt resigned. When the King failed to find anyone else to be his minister, he relented and Pitt came back. The compromise is for York to become a Field Marshal instead.
Sat 15th Aug 1795
An article on Corsica by Citizen Ducher:
George III has proclaimed himself King of Corsica. He used to call himself King of France at the time we had a King of our own. He will probably remain King of Corsica long after the island is taken from him.
The English intend to establish a commercial operation on the island to store their manufactures for smuggling into the small ports of southern France and northern Italy and Spain. They need Corsican seamen to deliver the goods.3
French possession of Corsica ensured the good behaviour of Genoa. Now with Britain in control, she will make demands on Genoa. It is foreseeable that Britain will attempt to monopolise the trade of the western Mediterranean to the detriment of the Genoese, Venetians, Neapolitans and Tuscans, etc.
Sat 15th Aug 1795
Petition of the West India planters and merchants, 7th Oct 94, to Henry Dundas:
The British West Indian islands contain about 500,000 blacks and 50,000 whites. We obtain provisions from America - there is no other source. If we are to grow these foods ourselves, we must reduce the acreage given over to sugar and coffee, etc., and replant with grain.
It is not just food – we also get building materials (timber) and horses and cattle from America. British Canada does not offer these productions - it consumes all it produces itself. Not only is America the only place that supplies all these necessaries in fresh and good quality but it also buys our rum and molasses (those cheap goods that are superfluous to Europe’s needs and can hardly bear the freight to Europe).
Since the War of Independence all American trade to West Indies is supposed to be carried in British ships under the terms of our Navigation Acts. Since the English took over the maritime trade at that time, prices have increased 50 – 100%. There is no change of price in the goods in America themselves; its just the involvement of English intermediaries that has caused the increase.
A fleet of specialist ships was built in America to bring timber, animals and food and take back rum and molasses. The ships from England are not suitable to bring timber, animals and food. The outbreak of war with France has led to the seizure of many of these specialist American ships and they are now either kept in port or used on other trades.
It has been our imperative necessity to open our ports to American ships direct. We are already struggling with the increased freight and insurance rates that war brings. The fact is, if we are hobbled in this way, the Spanish and Dutch West Indian colonies (who have unrestrained trade with America) will progress faster than we.
By interdicting American trade in agricultural products we inevitably force them into manufacturing the items that we are no longer able to re-export to them. This will put them into direct competition with British goods.
British monopoly of the benefits of our West Indian colonies cannot be maintained in wartime. We have just taken a good part of the French islands and our trade needs will necessarily increase. You have allowed the French colonies you have occupied to temporarily trade with America. We want the same allowance.
Sat 29th Aug 1795
Mercier’s Parisian press reports that disorder at the National Convention is not entirely ended. A group calling themselves Cretans tried to disrupt the meeting on 3rd Feb. Leonard Bourdon seems to be a member - he was one of the minority calling ‘down with the moderates’. Fayan is another and made some radical statements. Order was quickly restored and Mercier is publishing the spat to alert Parisians to what the Cretans had attempted in the chamber.
Mercier also reports a 21st Feb sitting at which the Deputies elected representatives to be posted to the colonies in the East (Mauritius and Reunion). Legendre became incensed with a colonial deputy named Garaud and threatened to ‘box his ears’. All the Jacobin opposition shouted for justice. Legendre defended himself – in attacking their chiefs it is unsurprising I should be attacked by their chiefs’ supporters, and he identified Thuriot as the Deputy who wished to unite the colonial representatives under his own agenda. Thuriot denied the accusation. Legendre reiterated it and added that Thuriot only combated Robespierre (his claim to protection now) because he wanted the supreme power himself. Every Deputy was alerted and the subsequent vote approved only non-Jacobin representatives for Mauritius – Barras, Letourneur de la Manche and Harmansi de la Meuse.4
Sat 29th Aug 1795
Leiden Gazette, 15th Feb:
The French representatives to the Netherlands have fixed Holland’s contribution to France for war indemnity at 1 million livres in assignats. The amount will be apportioned amongst all property owners and may be adjusted if there is evidence of their support or opposition to French or Dutch liberty.
Dutch citizens have three months to procure their necessary assignats. The traders are already accepting assignats for merchandise and this compulsion on property owners to hold them as well has increased their value.
It is supposed that the French sooner or later will remove gold from the Netherlands to France and replace it with assignats. If the French do this in all the occupied lands, the bullion traders of Paris will become unemployed.
Sat 29th Aug 1795
Peace with France – Baron de Stael arrived at Paris on 23rd Jan and Baron Goltz is expected 26th Jan. Merlin de Thionville left Paris yesterday for an undisclosed destination, widely supposed to be Vienna. There is a great popular wish for peace. France has achieved the frontiers that will assure a reasonable level of future security to her. She now wants to get her men back to stimulate agriculture and industry and enjoy the peace dividend.
But the Deputies know the coalition of Kings is still active. Prussia may be diverted by Poland; Austria wants peace only so she also can involve herself in Poland without a potential enemy at her back. It is just George III who remains implacably opposed to regicides and keeps his ministers focused on monarchical revenge which Pitt makes acceptable by maximising the commercial possibilities of war to beguile and placate the City of London. The Deputies conclude that any or all of the neighbours could resume the struggle. The debate reveals:
A stranglehold continues around French ports. We thought we were self-sufficient economically but we do need a small supply of colonial produce and luxuries. Our revolution should not be a Spartan affair. The efforts of war have depleted our supplies of iron, copper and timber and initial replacement will have to come from abroad. We also need wool from Spain and silk from Piedmont to rehabilitate our industry.
We cannot continue to buy through Switzerland because the supply is sourced from our enemies and the prices are unbelievably high even before local transportation and delivery. Basle collects from us in specie six times the value we ourselves collect from all the occupied electorates along the Rhine. We have to find sources other than Switzerland. This in turn means we have to strengthen our navy and firm-up our relationship with prospective suppliers like the northern powers. This is the way to our full recovery.
Meanwhile our armies survive by requisitioning and everyone wants it to end. We have an opportunity to procure a great commercial revolution as spectacular as our political one but it requires peace.
Sat 29th Aug 1795
House of Lords, 12th Feb:
Bedford addressed the Lords on the effect of the King’s speech demanding a continuation of war. He thought it so uncompromising as to discourage the British people from pressing their wish for peace. They were tired of war but the minister implacably demands continuance. He thought ministers had erred in permitting an obstinate Declaration. The French do not expect peace from us.
Bedford reviewed the declarations of the King and of two British commanders (Admiral Lord Hood and General O’Hara at Toulon, who had been uncontradicted by any British official). He concluded that these revealed we fought the war to restore monarchy to France. One of the commanders had indicated there was no intermediate stage between anarchy and monarchy. The other had said the way to restore law, religion and morality was to restore monarchy. He challenged the Lords to identify some plausible alternative aim of British war policy.
He observed French conduct towards the neutrals – America, Sweden and Denmark – showed that Paris was quite able to maintain proper relationships with other states. By elimination of all other causes, one is inexorably led to the conclusion that England is fighting Republicanism, the French form of government.
He observed that the Minister’s argument against peace feelers was that it would raise the French spirit and depress the English. He observed the French considered themselves as fighting in a great cause and their spirits were raised very sufficiently by their military successes. Britain’s purpose was to oppress the French and bring them to forsake the form of government they had chosen. The supporters of this purpose in England were largely French émigrés who wanted revenge. The ministry’s only ground for great expectations was the desperate state of French national finances, and Pitt repeated that hope every day ad nauseam, but France continued to war successfully on several fronts.
Bedford referred to his earlier speech about the spirit of Royalism at Toulon, La Vendee and Alsace. He thought these efforts of the British government to improve the standing of the émigré French aristocrats with their own people were misleading. In fact, a man who has written a pamphlet promoting Royalty has just been sentenced to the guillotine, although his execution will unlikely be approved by the new moderate government. The fact is his one pamphlet promoting Royalty should be seen against the background of myriad other pamphlets all promoting the cause of peace. The only centre of slight Royalist sympathy in France was amongst army officers but whilst those men are busy fighting for their country they can hardly influence the discussion at home. Peace would allow them to return and affect the political process and system. So there appears to be an alternative way of achieving British war aims by declaring peace and creating the circumstances whereby French monarchy might have prospects of revival.
The other Lords did not agree. ‘A neighbour might change its government but the new administration should be friendly’ one said. They saw a cause of war in French measures that they characterised as hostile to England.5
Sat 5th Sept 1795
Editorial – The Prussians have left the allied coalition and made peace. The Austrians and Spanish are following the same course. All the continental powers are unwilling to confront France after the terrible beating they got in the Low Countries. The ability of France to raise, train and provision the most enormous armies and give them the motivation to fight effectively against our own mercenaries and mediocre Generals has decided the continental powers to eschew direct measures and place their faith in the guile and deception of Metternich and his ilk.
England’s position is different. The sea adequately protects us against invasion. Our naval force protects our coasts and distresses the enemy’s. France cannot bring her overwhelming military power to bear on us without first defeating the Royal Navy. Our main exposure to France is in George III’s ownership of Hanover, his special relationship with Prussia and Austria, and, somewhat less importantly, our claret, champagne and brandy traders and those social-minded people who detect a whiff of paradise in French political innovations.
Sat 5th Sept 1795
Paris news – The Prince de Bouillon sought to land his Royalist party on the Brittany coast from Jersey on 14th March.6 Pitt wished him to rekindle the civil war in La Vendee. Émigrés had been recruited in London and sent to the Channel Islands to support him. An English flotilla of some 15 frigates escorted Bouillon to the Bay of St Brieuc. Their arrival was a noisy affair to alert the people ashore who were expected to display their support.
It seems that Pitt has been completely misled by the Bourbons and the priests. The people of that area have become patriotic. They support the Republican army and the national guard. General Vatteau opposed the émigré landing so quickly that our fleet had to sail off elsewhere. Our warships sailed along the entire Bay from Treveune to Metz de Gaele but could not surprise the French army. They then returned to Jersey.
This event should alert the British ministry that émigrés are no longer welcome in Brittany. The National Convention wants to reinforce the coast from Port Brieuc to Pontrieux. It seeks for a way of impressing on the English that the treaties it has made with the formerly rebellious people (see below for La Vendee) are honoured by both sides.
It believes French security interests imperatively require a treaty with Spain to combine the two national fleets and obtain naval parity with England. France sent 6 ships-of-the-line to Toulon and now has sufficient force in the Mediterranean to confront England but, to do so, it necessarily reduced the effectiveness of the Brest fleet leaving control of the Channel to us.
Sat 5th Sept 1795
The Royalist General Charette has signed a Treaty of Indemnity with the French government on 7th March. He acts on behalf of the dissident inhabitants of La Vendee:
40 million livres will be paid to the Vendeans immediately.
All debts of General Charette of La Vendee will be paid by the country and a 10 million deposit is given.
The inhabitants of La Vendee acknowledge the French Republic.
General Charette may command a force of 2,000 Vendeans who will be paid by the Republic.
The Republican Govt will prepare a list of those inhabitants it requires banished and give it to the General to execute.
Catholic worship is permitted discreetly. All bells and processions are forbidden.
Banished priests may return to La Vendee but only their patrimonial estates will be returned to them.
La Vendee will have no district or municipal representatives. It may have a national agent in each French province.
No requisition will be made of La Vendee for 5 years.
Sat 5th Sept 1795
Vernier has assessed the costs of the last French campaign in the Pay Bas and on the Rhine at 3 billion livres in assignats.
Sat 5th Sept 1795
Barrere, Billaud and Collot have been banished to Guyana. On their way to the ship Billaud and Collot were intimidated at Orleans. People ignored the strong military escort and threw stones and insults. Barrere continually ridiculed the National Convention but the other two were quiet and sad.
Sat 5th Sept 1795
Paris papers - The peace treaty with Prussia was announced in the National Convention on 10th April. It is dated 5th April at Basel and contains twelve clauses. The Deputies say they have removed the theatre of war from Northern Germany and substituted a commercial treaty. The actions of Prussia are closely followed by most of the German states. She will be a useful ally.
This agreement is mainly due to the diligent efforts of Francois Barthelemy, the French representative in Switzerland, with the Prussian negotiator Karl August Hardenberg. Barthelemy is also finalising treaties of peace with other French enemies, in spite of the disruptive tactics of the emissaries of England and Austria. The clauses in the Prussian agreement are:
Peace is declared between Prussia, Brandenburg etc. and France.
Neither shall furnish men or warlike stores to the enemies of the other.
Neither will allow hostile troops through their lands.
France will evacuate the east bank of the Rhine (the complete line of the frontier is identified in the treaty). French requisitions in the evacuated area are void and contributions formerly paid to the Republic will be reimbursed.
France will continue to occupy the west bank until a final pacification of Europe.
A treaty of commerce addressing the former trade links between the countries will be concluded soon.
All sequestrations by one or the other party will be restored.
All prisoners of war will be exchanged.
The Hessians and Saxons taken at Mayence will also be exchanged.
The full text of Articles 1 and 2 of the treaty is in 12th Sept edition.
Sat 12th Sept 1795
Extract from a letter to the Editor of Bombay Courier:
Sir, The Duke of York has circulated Colonels of HM’s regiments enquiring how many captains they have under 12 years of age and how many Lt Colonels under 18 yrs of age. It is not a confusion of age with years of service, there really are child officers on the British army establishment.
It reveals the venal effects of patronage on the King’s army. Veteran officers cannot afford to buy rank whilst these sons of nobles can.7
Sat 19th Sept 1795
Captain Home Popham, late of the Company’s service in India, has spent the winter on Norderley, a sand bank in the North Sea off the Ems estuary, which the British are holding whilst they evacuate the remnants of their army.
Popham is daily breaking the ice to permit communications with Great Yarmouth by sea. Five ships have been dispatched via this route up to May this year. Sir Robert Laurie, Sir Charles Asgill and many other officers have been saved by Popham’s work. Popham has parlayed their laudatory comments for a frigate command in the Mediterranean.8
Sat 19th Sept 1795
London, 15th May - Dundas has spoken in the Commons about the Company’s shipping. He told MPs that the British-built ships chartered to the Company for India trade had necessarily been surrendered to British government use.
Some alternative transport is necessary for Indian trade. The House resolved itself into a committee and decided to permit non-British-built ships to carry the India and China trade.9
Sat 19th Sept 1795
National Convention, 24th March – Bezard, the representative sent to the Loire, has reported on activities in the west of France. The area of land occupied by people supporting the monarchy of Louis XVII, the imprisoned son of the executed King, has shrunk. Bezard says General Stofflet, the Royalist leader, will soon be defeated. The Deputies note they have counselled the people of La Vendee and a majority has returned to French rule. For General Stofflet, France may have to use bayonets. Bezard continues:
We have settled the disturbances in the area between the Loire and the Layon and agriculture is resumed by the farmers there. On 23rd March we captured Chalonne and crossed the river on a bridge of boats into the enemy’s territory. We now control both ends of the old bridge that the Royalists destroyed and are repairing it. We pursued the enemy force to the hilltops and forced an amnesty upon them. The entire area is devastated. We found a saltpetre manufactory which we destroyed. The Royalists gathered 600 – 700 men and some cavalry and attacked us. We drove them off and continued to Mont Glonne which we attacked. The garrison ran away and, as it is a strategic acquisition, Bezard declared a day of festivities.
Sat 19th Sept 1795
Rovere of CPS told the National Convention that the external and internal enemies of France are connected. One of the principal Royalist conspirators in Brittany whom we amnestied has explained the émigré arrangement with the British. He says the English plan was to invade the coast of Brittany whilst the insurgents in France concurrently attacked the commercial and political leadership. Some Deputies were to be assassinated.
The plot was to be activated by the Commissioners for Food telling the CPS that on 20th April a distribution of 1½ lbs of bread was to be made to every Parisian. In fact the Commissioners did not have this much bread and their failure to meet this published promise was expected to incite violence.
Cretin, one of the chiefs of this 1st April conspiracy, was confined in the prison of Plessis. The warders discovered a message smuggled to Cretin in a pound of Swiss cheese. It said when he received an egg with the shell coloured half white, half red, it was the signal for the prisoners to be freed. Some octangular cards were found with the words ‘vive la montagne’.
Other conspirators were Perrein, an ex-commissioner of Lyons, an engineer named Chevalier and the quarter-master of the gendarmerie. Montaut, Cambon and Thuriot were to attend the prison, dressed as Deputies, and release the conspirators who would then attack the armouries and use those armaments to invest the National Convention. They then intended to declare the Republican Constitution and re-arrest the 73 deputies who were recently restored to their seats. They wished to banish Tallien, Freron, Rouvere, Barras, Dubois Crance, Legendre and others and to restore those deputies who had been gaoled or banished.
The National Convention decreed unanimously that Thuriot, Chambon, Ruamps, Hentz, Maignet, Levasseur de la Sorthe and Moyse Bayle should attend the legislature within 24 hours and explain themselves, failing which they will be banished. It ordered the Revolutionary Tribunal to continue sitting until it had judged the case against Fouquier Tinville, the former prosecutor, and his accomplices. It ordered the arrest of Maribaut.
(The following day CPS said three deputies had reported for questioning but a fourth, Vadier, had absconded.)
Sat 19th Sept 1795
The National Convention received a letter from Nantes reporting the insurgency in the west has ended. La Vendee has returned to the Republic. General Charette and his colleagues have declared they will submit to French law. General Stofflet, commander of the Royalist army of Anjou, has not yet responded to our pacific decree but eight of his principal chiefs have joined us leaving Stofflet with just a few hundred troops from the German and Rosenthal legions.
We also report that two of the chiefs of the Chouans have submitted and have agreed to lobby the rest to subscribe to the declaration of Charette. The ceasefire is holding.
Sgd P P Delauney, Rommè (the American), Brue, Chaillon, Bollet, Ruelle, Mennou, Gary, Dornter and Mobisson.
Since receiving this letter we have heard that 400 Chouans have laid down their arms at Angers to the national representative Bezard.
Sat 19th Sept 1795
Merlin de Thionville reminded the assembly that four colleagues had been arrested by Dumourier and remained hostages of the coalition. A fifth was injured and gaoled in Austria. “I move that the CPS take steps for their recovery.” Merlin de Douai told the National Convention that measures were already underway.
Sat 26th Sept 1795
On 15th March the National Convention heard a report on food supply:
The greatest obstacle to our authority is the scarcity of provisions, or even the fear of scarcity. We know what our resources are and what we want to do with them. France has been obliged to supply herself. Our maritime trade has been cut-off by the English. The liberty of commerce is denied to us and we have suddenly been thrown entirely upon our own resources. Our repudiation of Terror has necessarily made our administration less powerful than a despotism. Under Terror our commerce was destroyed and speculators were executed. The government operated from day to day. It was perfidious and improvident. The genius of merchants might have supplied our needs but they became fearful and lost confidence.
2.6 million quintals of grain (five days national supply) was imported by the old Jacobin government in the 19 months of its existence. It gave commissions in the various supplying countries but their effects were variable. No doubt the very cold winter and reduced farm yields has contributed to our difficulty but this present government is yet to receive anything from those countries. Our own national commerce is beginning to revive. I have letters here that suggest supplies are about to arrive in the south of France. In the north we can requisition the resources of the conquered lands to provision our armies and need no longer send food to them from France.
Mutual aid is the first of republican virtues. Paris must ration itself to minimise the imposition on the provinces. We should restrict ourselves to necessaries until the economy recovers. We renounce superfluous supplies in order that Frenchmen everywhere may have their necessaries.
Paris is consuming 2,000 sacks of flour (8,000 quintals of grain) daily. A few years ago and for all of recent history the grain consumption of Paris was 1,500 sacks. A few days ago we tried to supply only 1,800 sacks but it was not equally distributed and the reduction fell disproportionately on some districts causing complaints. I believe we should determine a precise allowance of bread for each citizen and it should be available to them whether they go to the bakery early or late. This will enable us to ration the supply. We fix the supply at 1,600 sacks. This permits every working Parisian to have 1½ lbs of bread a day and everyone else to have 1 lb a day. Here are letters from Genoa on provisions:
Letter from Genoa, 3rd March:
The violent measures against Genoa are producing results. A shipment of grain has arrived at Toulon from Leghorn for the account of the Genoese merchants who are supplying us. Several of the Marseilles merchants specialise solely on provisions and thirty grain vessels are en route there. The encouragement we have given to commerce is bearing fruit but it is still depressed and needs nurturing. We have issued many passports to traders to visit the Levant and buy provisions for the nation. We expect the supplies to approach normal within a month.
Sgd P J Ritte and J Mazitte, Popular Representatives.
Villers, the French minister at Genoa, has also written:
The Genoese merchants are getting cash for their business with us. Their confidence has returned. In the last ten days we have received 13,100 sacks of wheat and 6,000 of barley for France. It is almost half the total Genoese imports of these grains.
Citizen Gaston said the shortage in Paris is temporary and primarily due to the amnesty to émigrés who returned and inflated the population by 30,000. Some of these people still harbour a wish for Royalty and the resumption of their old comfortable ways. Mathieu said there were less than 10,000 émigrés in Paris and, if any of them were counter-revolutionaries, we might rely on the vigilance of the CPS to warn us.
Sat 3rd Oct 1795
London news – Eden (later Lord Auckland) has been to Dieppe and conferred with a French Commissioner on a prisoner exchange. The Commissioner invited Eden to accompany him to Paris to report but he preferred for the Frenchman to go alone. A few days later the Commissioner returned to Dieppe.
He said he was instructed to frustrate the rumour that the French government did not negotiate with representatives of a monarchy. He averred that France would talk with any country. He could not consent to an exchange of sailors but he agreed to release British naval officers to Eden on his promise to restore an equivalent number of French officers.
Sat 3rd Oct 1795
Letter from Brest, 14th May - The French fleet at Brest is inactive. Many of the sailors have gone on leave and the dockyard workmen have been discharged. An order has arrived from Paris to disarm six ships-of-the-line and four frigates. It is supposed the cannon will be sent to the army. This was an unexpected order and many people speculate on its intention.
Sat 3rd Oct 1795
National Convention, 27th May:
Representatives Brunel and Niou went ashore at Toulon on 17th May and were caught by some Jacobins. They were forced to write an order which the Jacobins used to obtain access to and possession of Fort Lamalgen. Brunel and Niou were then killed. The Jacobin prisoners in the fort were released and the armoury was ransacked. The Jacobins have since disarmed officials of the Commune of Solies and carried off 11 residents and a priest. They say seven of the men released from the fort were émigrés who are now wearing cockades in their hats inscribed ‘long live Louis XVII’.
A letter from Marseilles dated 19th May:
The Jacobins have placed cannon at all the entrances to the town. The representative Charbonnier, whom the National Convention permitted to visit Toulon for his health, is a leader of the revolution. He has men active in both Marseilles and Toulon. At Toulon they say they will defend the Constitution of 1793 and have sent emissaries to the surrounding communes to encourage them to join-in. It is expected they will endeavour to prevent the French fleet leaving port or deliver it to the English who continue to cruise outside. It appears quite likely that the motivational force for this rebellion comes from London.
Recent advices say the rebels are politicising the Toulon garrison; the fleet is in the inner roads and exposed to land-based attack; our representative and colleague Chiappe is their prisoner. A citizen of Toulon, who escaped last night, says the Jacobins now number 8,000 men and their attempts to subvert the garrison have been repudiated by the soldiers. Latest news is that the fleet has shifted to the outer roads beyond the guns of the port and that Chiappe has escaped. Our armed forces around Marseilles are moving on Toulon and a speedy reduction will ensue.
The National Convention then voted to arrest Charbonnier and 18 other members and have them tried by Courts Martial.
Sat 3rd Oct 1795
The expected food riots in Paris commenced on 21st May 1795. The rioters blame the present government. A group of women came into the National Convention and disrupted the session. Violence appeared likely and General Fox was given command of an armed force to protect the legislators. By evening the National Convention was surrounded by a hostile mob. Then the Gendarmerie Nationale and some veterans burst in, swords drawn, bayonets fixed, and restored order. A few of the popular ringleaders were brought to the centre of the floor.
The crowd outside became aware of the turn of events and thrust itself into the building. Someone fired a gun and anarchy followed. Some legislators were killed and beheaded. The President of the National Convention was presented with a petition “Bread and the Constitution of 1793”. It was read to loud applause. The deputies were then required to order the release of all prisoners confined for their political beliefs together with those deputies confined recently. Searching peoples’ homes for provisions was authorised. The CPS membership was ordered arrested and replaced.
Then the National Convention’s supporters materialised. Another group of armed citizens entered the Chamber crying ‘long live the Convention’. The first group of rioters were thrown out or arrested. Bourdon de l’Oise reminded everyone that a decree obtained by violence was invalid.
On 20th May Ferret presented the popular requests:
It is unjust to starve us and imprison those who protest. We demand bread; the abolition of the revolutionary government; the introduction of the 1793 Constitution; the arrest and replacement of all government officers; the liberation of people whose offence was to demand bread, etc. This is the popular will. You are supposed to be a popular government. Submit to our demands.
The deputies swore to die at their posts before they relinquished power. Clauset said the riot was premeditated and most likely the work of the Royalists etc. Bourdon de l’Oise thought the riots were timed to coincide with the peace negotiations France is making with Prussia and Austria (i.e. foreign instigation). The riots are supposed to evidence that the National Convention is unpopular and that France remains in anarchy and cannot negotiate reliably. He requested the patience of the people for a few days or weeks more. The revolution has taken five years and is nearly complete.
Merlin de Douai noted the riot commenced the same day that the national representative was sent off to Basel with authority to make peace. He had completed that duty on 26th April. He recalled that when Prussia made peace, the English gave notice to the Diet of Ratisbon (Regensburg) that the fomentation of the French people was just then approaching a crisis and peace treaties were entirely inappropriate.
Sat 10th Oct 1795
Courier du Bas Rhin newspaper has a detailed report on the insurrection at Paris on 20th May 1795:
At 8 am the citizens in the suburbs were called to arms and the artillerymen to their guns. The conspiracy of the Fauxbourgs against the National Convention was based on shortage of bread. Anguis warned the Deputies it was to occur. Bourdon de l’Oise and Merlin de Douai called the people to remain calm.
Deputy Andre Dumont arrived from Versailles and said that couriers had arrived at the four communes of the Department of Seine and Oise saying the intention was to proclaim Louis XVII. Laporte proposed that a decree be issued linking those communes with the insurrection; adverting to its rebellious nature and calling on all citizens to attend their Sections. Mathieu suggested the wording of a Proclamation to the Parisians and nine Deputies were selected to attend the communes and read it.
Then the doors burst open and a group of women entered the chamber. They were offered sympathy but told bread was not obtainable by violence. Louvet made a moving address against Royalty and Terrorism and received a standing ovation. The rabble became more active and the President appointed Citizen Fox as the army commandant of Paris with authority to oppose force with force. Fox collected a strong detachment of Veterans and Gendarmes armed with swords, sabres and bayonets and the crowd was ejected from the Chamber. Six ringleaders were caught and brought before the Tribune to explain themselves. The pockets of one contained bread.
The ejected agitators spread a rumour that the women who had first broken into the Chamber had been executed. Delmas was appointed to command the armed force of Paris and restore tranquillity. Dussault commended the foreign ministers (American, Genoese, etc) who remained calmly in their box throughout the disturbance. Then the rabble returned and broke in. One wore a hat with a writing on it “bread and the 1793 Constitution”. He was attacked and killed. Eventually the people overran the Deputies and a man in artillery uniform mounted the tribune and delivered a speech:
“We cannot eat promises. We resolve to dissolve the revolutionary government and adopt the 1793 Constitution. The present government is suspended and its members arrested. Citizens arrested for demanding bread must be instantly released. The Primary Assemblies must be convened to elect new legislators. The telegraph must be seized (to prevent the National Convention calling the armies back) but other property is to be secured.”
The rioters looked to the Deputies for instant acceptance. About 100 remained in the Chamber. To press the point, the head of Deputy Feraud was brought in and thrown upon the President’s desk. Romme proposed the requests of the rioters be voted upon which was agreed. These were:
1/ suppression of the Revolutionary Government,
2/ Arrest of all the members of the Committees of government,
3/ Their substitution by Prieur de la Marne, Bouchotte, Fayou and another,
4 & 5/ release of prisoners, particularly Duhem (imprisoned at Ham),
6/ recall of Barrere, Collot and Billaud,
7/ an end to house searches and the closing of the barriers and
8/ the end of the death penalty except for newspaper editors publishing treason.
The National Convention was able to raise an armed force from the citizens of anti-Jacobin Sections – Moulins and Piques – and Legendre marched them into the Chamber. They made three assaults on the mob and once Legendre had fought his way to the centre of the Hall he called in the name of the Law on all citizens to retire. The debate was then resumed. Romme’s motion was approved. 14 Deputies who appeared to have encouraged the riot, were arrested. It was agreed that the Deputies would wear their robes of office and may carry arms at future sittings.
Next morning the National Convention enacted that all wheat in Paris was to be ground to flour and distributed. Any concealed supplies were to be confiscated and 25% of it to be given to the informer.
It was reported that the Commune of Paris had created a National Assembly from amongst its members and has sent representatives into the Sections to politicise them. This commune seeks the government of France. Doulcet informed the Deputies that a courier had been sent to Basel to confirm to the peace negotiators that the National Convention was still seized of the government.
When, on 26th May, the people of Rouen heard of the attempts of some Parisians to overturn the government, they imprisoned the Jacobins of their town and raised 24,000 men to march to the support of Paris. Caen offered 15,000 men and another Commune 10,000 and it appeared at one point that Paris would be flooded by a Citizen’s Army of at least 300,000 ardent volunteers. They were stopped by a despatch of the National Convention reporting it retained power.
Sat 10th Oct 1795
Citizen Barthelemy, French minister to Switzerland, has received a letter from the CPS dated 21st May advising him that the second attempt to overthrow the government had been made and had also failed. The mob assembled under the cry ‘Bread and the 1793 Constitution’ and was influenced by Jacobin principles. Citizen Feraud, who had just returned from the Army of the Rhine, was beheaded. The people we amnestied last time, were again behind the riots.
The mob was forced out of the Chamber and those Deputies who had encouraged insurrection were arrested. The remarkable thing is that no demand to restore monarchy was made. We will soon announce a strong Constitution to dissuade citizens from violence.
Sat 10th Oct 1795
Journal Generale, 2nd June – Collot, Billaud and Barrere were first banished. Then government recognised their implacability and ordered their execution. Collet and Billaud had already sailed into exile but Barrere was still within reach and is to be executed.
From Marseilles we hear a part of the Toulon fleet has joined the insurgency but is restricted by the Brest fleet which remains loyal. Government forces have reoccupied Fort Lamalgue and the Toulon insurgents have difficulty to escape either by land or sea. In Marseilles many Jacobins have been killed in the streets. It has also occurred at Lyons and elsewhere. The Marseillois have marched for Toulon. Before they left they demanded the execution of all dissidents in the prison but Deputy Chambon succeeded in diverting them.
Sat 10th Oct 1795
The Abbe Sieyes has returned from his mission to Holland:
The brave Dutch people have sworn to unite with us in a treaty of offence and defence against our enemies. Dutch military and naval power will augment our own. The Thames will inevitably lose importance as the Scheldt gains it and London will envy the rising fortunes of Bruges and Ostend. The port of Flushing is open to both our nations. By holding the town of Sluys and the Flanders ports we eclipse English maritime pre-eminence and restore liberty to trade.
Once the Dutch States-General recognised our liberal principles, they agreed the treaty terms quickly and the State Assembly of Holland ratified the agreement within three hours. We can expect the other states to act similarly. Here are the terms agreed at the Hague 16th May:
France recognises the Netherlands as an independent power.
She guarantees Dutch liberty and independence.
The Stadtholderate is abolished.
Peace and amity will characterise the relationship.
We unite for mutual offence and defence to the end of the war.
We agree to oppose England wherever we find her and neither one of us will agree peace with England without the concurrence of the other.
France will not make peace with any enemy without including the Dutch.
The Dutch contribution to the war with England is 12 capital ships and 18 frigates, primarily for the North and Baltic Seas.
The Dutch also provide half their establishment of land forces.
The combined armies and navies will be commanded by a Frenchman.
To concert operations a member of the Dutch Assembly will have a seat in the Committee of Marine in Paris.
France surrenders to the Dutch all the lands taken in United Provinces together with the control of the Dutch marine and military, and the stores thereof.
France maintains a claim for indemnity in respect of the ceded towns.
A French garrison will at all times occupy Flushing which town will belong to both nations.
To deter hostilities from the Rhine or the sea, France will garrison Boise le Duc, Grave and Bergen op Zoom.10
Once a general peace is obtained, France will surrender lands to create an appropriate frontier between the countries.
France will continue to garrison the frontier forts for its own defence.
The navigation of the Rhine, Meuse, Scheldt and Hond is free to French and Dutch shipping.
The immoveable property of the House of Orange is transferred to the ownership of the Dutch state.
The Netherlands will pay France 100 million Florins in specie or good Bills. France will assist the Dutch to recover outstanding debts from those countries it has influence with.
The Dutch undertake not to give asylum to émigrés and France undertakes not to give asylum to members of the House of Orange.
Sat 10th Oct 1795
Frankfurt, 26th May – the papers here say Count Carletti, minister of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, is coming to Paris to negotiate peace on behalf of Austria. Vienna denies it and says its minister at the Diet of Ratisbon has already repudiated it - the Emperor is determined to pursue the cause of religion and monarchy, they say.
Sat 10th Oct 1795
Cambaceres has reported to National Convention on 3rd March 1795 on the powers granted to CPS to negotiate with foreign nations:
The time has arrived when we must clarify the duties of our negotiators. The CPS is empowered to direct domestic initiatives. We now need to make similar arrangements for our foreign relations. Our revolution has impelled Europe towards liberty, freedom and the prospects of scientific advancement. It is our internal peace, progress and happiness that will convince the neighbours to emulate us more fully.
It is the capricious use of war to promote private interests that best evidences the tyranny of European monarchies. Kings are perverse and unjust. They expend the blood of their people for their own advantage. Their people would chose to fight only in a just cause. The people despatch their enemies, overthrow their projects and confound their ambitions. It is the people who, having conquered their enemies, give that most flattering glory of peace to the World. The French Republic wishes the World to be at peace. But there are still governments that have not repented; whose defeats and losses have not yet convinced them to compromise. Their pride forces them to ruin. They eschew justice and equity.
England aspires to dominate the seas. Austria and Russia aspire to rule Europe. They have been frustrated in the south and now attempt their plots in the north. Their purpose is to bring us down so the pristine alternative of democracy is removed from the view of their peoples and destroyed. They will no doubt seek to steal our wealth and to describe their theft as indemnity.
The other small states of Europe are either seduced by subsidies or terrorised by violence. They sway this way and that in accordance with their imagined self-interest. Neutrality is not enough. In any event the Kings do not permit it. They say ‘you are either with us or against us’.11 France offers the only alternative – an end to war and a beginning of the fuller exploitation of our human abilities.
We need to take the opportunity given by our military victories to explain our principles to Europe and collect amenable governments to our banner. Our inveterate enemies are depressed but haughty, weakened but enraged. No enduring treaty can yet be made with them. France is one, they are many – we should make it our policy to divide them.
Their individual national policies are all mutually contradictory and no firm peace can be founded on them. The way to bring them to a compromising frame of mind is to mobilise their populations to uphold justice. France does not seek for commercial advantages or new territory. We have asserted the right of the people to control their government. We really have to assert our power to protect the rights we have won. France upholds the right of nations to self-determination, to freedom of navigation and commerce. That is what we offer Europe.
The natural frontiers of France are the Alps and Pyrenees, the seas and our ancient free ally in the northwest. It is in the north that Austria has repeatedly caused trouble in Lorraine, that England has repeatedly sought to control Dunkirk and hinder the navigation of the Scheldt. A great number of French rivers flow to the sea through the Low Countries. These are the natural routes to carry French produce to international markets. The design of nature predicates the frontiers of France. We must make it lucidly clear to the neighbours that the delineation of our frontiers is not part of a land-grab but an attempt to procure future peace. We are not ambitious for territory. Our neighbours, governed by monarchies and aristocratic senates, desire land because more land = more people = more production = more revenue. We, on the other hand, have chosen independence and we must fight to maintain it.
These are the thoughts of the CPS, concerning our international relations, on which we invite your debate.
There is a difference between a negotiation undertaken by a representative deputed by the National Convention and a representation of a cabinet which addresses the Sovereign’s will. France needs Rules of Confidence to delegate to its negotiators so they may treat with other nations on equal powers.
The message was debated and it was ultimately decreed that:
The CPS has the direction of foreign relations. It will make treaties of peace, alliance, neutrality and commerce. They may be signed by members of CPS, if they have negotiated direct with foreign envoys, or by Plenipotentiaries specifically delegated by the National Convention for the purpose. Preliminary treaties (armistices, ceasefires, etc) do not require this ratification but no permanent treaty is valid until ratified by National Convention. In those cases in which foreign powers require some clauses to be kept secret, we will appoint a Committee of Twelve to inspect and verify the appropriateness of their requirement. The Committee will formally declare to the National Convention that the term(s) conforms with our national interest and that it is appropriate to maintain secrecy.
Sat 17th Oct 1795
Constantinople, 30th April – grain shipments are arriving. The Porte is trying to get flour prices reduced.
The Koran interdicts the study of Western civilisation by Muslims. The Porte however wishes to bring his people into a closer connection with Europe. He is opening language schools, military schools and common academic schools. He has ordered the formation of a new militia with new uniforms and the soldiers will not be permitted beards. Bearded soldiers look more warlike to us but the Janissaries are irritated as they can see this initiative presages their political decline.
This is precisely the Porte’s intention. He believes the Turks will be more inclined to follow him and the law, rather than continue the old ways. He presents the changes he is making (in military, marine and scientific areas) as progressive. He says they diminish the danger from neighbours and increase the wealth of the people. The Porte has also subscribed to exchange ambassadors with European powers. His Envoy Extraordinary at London is about to become an Ambassador. He proposes to send others to Vienna, St Petersburg, Berlin and Madrid. He proposes to abolish the ancient practice of ‘daim’ (receipt of gifts from foreign dignitaries) and this will relieve the European Courts of that expense.
Citizen Vernignac, the French ambassador to replace Descorches at Constantinople, is daily expected.
Sat 17th Oct 1795
National Convention, 22nd May – Dubois Crance says France spends 40 million livres per day of which two thirds is on food. We cannot afford to continue doing that. He proposed a tax on produce. Trielbard said the National Convention had substituted justice and humanity for Terror and blood and the people had responded with their support.
Today a new treaty with Prussia is reported. The old treaty contained a secret clause at Article 7 whereby the field of war was removed from northern Germany. This secret clause infers the withdrawal of the Austrian Emperor’s troops from that area.
The Elector of Saxony with the Landgraves of Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Darmstadt, have withdrawn their troops
Editor - these three Austrian states have not withdrawn their troops.
The Hanoverian troops in Bremen and Hamburg have been withdrawn. France is permitted by Prussia to cross the Rhine to attack the Emperor. The purpose of this secret term is to contain Austria. This is our fixed national policy - to unite the sword in one hand with the olive branch in the other. The treaty with Prussia achieves this.
Sat 17th Oct 1795
Amsterdam, 1st June – The popular representatives Ramel and Cochin have stopped the sale of goods from Russian and Portuguese ships in Dutch ports which are henceforth embargoed. The Netherlands has assembled a squadron of 35 warships (of which ten are capital ships).
Tues 27th Oct 1795 – Extraordinary
The young Dauphin died of ‘a scrofulous distemper’ in prison at the Temple on 10th June. He first had a swelling of the right knee and left wrist. It was a form of consumption which retarded his intellectual abilities. He became feverish and eventually died. He was called Louis XVII by the Royalists.
The declining cause of the French Royalists has been invigorated by his death as the brother of Louis XVI is now proclaimed King Louis XVIII of France by the émigrés. The Prince of Condé, the leader of the Royalist forces in all the European countries, has so proclaimed the new King. Poitou and Brittany are again in arms. 8,000 émigrés have descended on Quiberon Bay and their successes have been adequate to convince Pitt to project another invasion of France under Lord Moira.
The National Convention has increased tranquillity but it is not completely established. They are drafting a new Republican Constitution. Thomas Paine is advising. The food shortages have abated but the complaint of stock-jobbing has again arisen. These financial speculators have concerted their purchases and sales to depress the value of assignats.
A letter from Basra to a merchant in Bombay says Spain has made peace with France. It is probable but we have no corroboration. We hear that whilst negotiations were continuing, the French occupied Bilbao.
They have also taken the Fort of Luxembourg on 7th June, according to a report of Cambaceres to National Convention. The huge number of cannons within Luxembourg now pass to France. The garrison was not permitted to use covered wagons to remove their supplies as the French had intelligence from the Dutch that the abbeys and convents of the Netherlands had long before sent their gold and silver to Luxembourg for safe-keeping – the French intend to confiscate it if they can find it.
In Italy the French army has been defeated by the Austrians.
Tues 27th Oct 1795 – Extraordinary
The British parliament has enacted an authority for the India Company to charter ships built in British colonies to carry home the annual trade (formerly the Company was confined to use of British-built ships to support the ship-building and repairing industry in the Thames).
The financial world of the City of London is doing well. 3% Consols were 68 and India stock has reached 200.
Tues 27th Oct 1795 – Extraordinary
Letter from George Baldwin, British Consul at Alexandria, to Robert Abbot, Resident at Aleppo, dated 10th Aug 1795:
The captain of a Venetian ship, who has just brought out a cargo from Marseilles (comprising the valuables of the executed Royalists of that place which are being noisily hawked through the streets), tells me a force of 2,000 British troops and 5,000 émigrés has landed in Brittany to effect a junction with the dissidents in La Vendee. The huge numbers of Royalists in the Channel Islands have been alerted and are mobilising opinion. Support for their cause is increasing in Normandy and Brittany, he says.
Another earlier letter notes Genoa is invested by 5,000 Austrian troops and a heavy indemnity is demanded. Once the allies have denied France this great source of provisions, the chance of famine and civil war in France should improve.
Tues 27th Oct 1795 – Extraordinary
Admiral Bridport has engaged a French fleet of 12 capital ships and 11 frigates off L’Orient. He took three ships-of-the-line and lost none. George III is delighted. It is the only good news Pitt has to put in the King’s speech to the two Houses.
Tues 27th Oct 1795 – Extraordinary
Paris Editorial, April 1795 – Never since the beginning of the Revolution have we had such a good opportunity to establish liberty upon principles of reason. For the first time in five years a preponderance of the people support government. How does government respond? It says it will draft a new Constitution.
In a nation the government is everything. One can well conceive of an Empire without a Constitution but not without a government. Governments change in form and principle as regularly as circumstances require.
The Constitution of Lycurgus lasted 500 years but the Lacadaemonians changed their government repeatedly throughout that time; the Constitution of Numa was respected at Rome, even by the Emperors, but did not prevent the government from changing. It was the same with the Athenians under the laws of Solon. Even today what resemblance is there between the English Magna Charta and the English government; between the Koran and the Porte, between the Golden Bull and the German states, between Salic law and pre-Revolutionary France? The pristine Americans are not immune – they have already derogated from their Constitution.12
History reveals that Constitutions are illusions and it is government alone that protects prosperity. We should attend to the perfection of government. The Jacobins understood this. They never requested for a government that might suppress their violence. They want the 1793 Constitution which they will use, as the Crusaders used the Gospel, to renew all the crime of yesteryear.
We want a part of the assignats withdrawn from circulation. The removal of Cambon from the Committee of Finance should accelerate this process. Necessaries have become too expensive for the bulk of the people – butter is 8 livres a pound, potatoes 20 livres a bushel, beans are 50 sous the peck, a suckling pig costs 50 crowns, coal 50 livres the sack and wood, although it is April, is still 400-500 livres a cord. The pastry cooks of Paris want 6 livres for an indifferent cake. An assignat of 50 livres will buy only moderate fare in a restaurant. Gold and silver goods are similarly advanced. Cloth, linen and leather are all too expensive but the main national problem concerns provisions.
Tues 27th Oct 1795 – Extraordinary
National Convention, 27th May – the Jacobins at Toulon have rebelled. They occupied the port and the arsenal. They killed 600 people associated with the Revolutionary government. The Marseillois formed themselves into an army and marched against Toulon. The Jacobins surrendered the gates of Toulon to the Marseillois and retired within the arsenal where they were subdued and killed. 4,000 of them have since been executed.
Tues 27th Oct 1795 – Extraordinary
Brest, 17th May – 260 ships from Bordeaux, Nantes and Rochefort have delivered provisions here for the Republican armies – 8,000 quintals of grain, 3,000 quintals of flour and 15,000 barrels of wine. There is also 50,000 hogsheads of wine for private consumption and some brandy etc. Nevertheless, the costs of provisions remains high – a loaf of bread sells at 3 paper livres, wine is 6 livres per bottle and other items in proportion.
Tues 27th Oct 1795 – Extraordinary
The elections of officials in the towns and provinces of the Netherlands is done differently everywhere. In some cases they can hardly be called popular representatives. Amsterdam has just provided an example of how to do it. They have united the responsibility of the franchise with the need to exclude gangs, conspiracies, corruption and violence from the process. Popular elections require this responsibility.
In Amsterdam all the citizens chose 60 electors. This selection is reduced by a ‘lucky dip’ to twenty. These twenty agree the nomination of 120 representatives. The citizens then vote again for 60 of these 120 representatives who constitute the Assembly. Everyone seems to be satisfied.
Tues 27th Oct 1795 – Extraordinary
The Hague, 24th May:
A secret treaty of alliance between Russia and England has been made. The Dutch envoy at Vienna, van Haasten, discovered it – the extent of treasonable activity in that City defies belief. Everybody’s secrets are on sale. Russia promises 12 capital ships and 6 frigates for the Baltic. This explains the Swedish and Danish re-armament of their fleets for the protection of their neutral trade.The Russian envoy at the Hague, Nowikoff, has been recalled, presumably concerning the Dutch embargo on Russian trade.
An English squadron is off the Dutch coast. It has blockaded the Texel and some other ports
Tues 27th Oct 1795 – Extraordinary
Brussels, 13th May – The French have occupied Ostend and Nieuport. The docks are being enlarged and they are adding considerable fortifications. 10,000 Dutch workers are employed on the improvements.
Tues 27th Oct 1795 – Extraordinary
Constantinople, 9th May – On 4th May the Porte nominated his Ambassadors for Vienna and Berlin. They are Ibrahim Bey and Ali Effendi respectively. They will each be paid 50,000 piastres a year for their maintenance.
The French ambassador to Constantinople, Vernignac, has told the Porte of the treaty between France and Prussia because he hopes it will secure his recognition. To date the Porte has said he will recognise the French Republic only after some monarchical European state does. Until then Vernignac remains in the French Hotel. His predecessor Descorches removed most traces of monarchy from the Hotel but left the superb statue of Louis XV in the foyer. Vernignac has removed the Royal ornaments, defaced the inscription and damaged the statue so it no longer resembles anyone.
On 6th May the dragoman Gallimachi was made Prince of Moldavia.
The Janissaries and the Topzies have been reconciled by the Porte at the considerable expense of bribing the former. He has had to promise them he will not reform their Corps. The dispute between these groups has caused many deaths and the government was fearful of intervening. The Turks are still suffering shortages. The grain supply from Alexandria is insufficient whilst most of the grain from Syria is intercepted by Maltese pirates and carried to Christian ports where it obtains a higher price.
Sat 31st Oct 1795
London Editorial – there really does seem a chance for peace:
Firstly, the Prussian example has influenced the German states in the Austrian Empire. This has caused the Austrian Emperor, after the Diet of Ratisbon, to open negotiations for peace on their behalf whilst, as King of Hungary and Bohemia, he continues to make war as a British ally.
Secondly, the devastation of Poland, the Palatinate and elsewhere has reduced Europe’s ability to feed itself.
Thirdly, should France adopt the new draft of the Constitution, it will remove the excuse of the neighbours that they cannot negotiate with an anarchical government.
The émigré French Royalists are opposed to peace but they are the only major obstacle.
The new Constitution was presented to the National Convention on 23rd June. It will take weeks to ratify. It starts with a declaration of the Rights of Man and generally differs little from the 1793 Constitution except that the right to rebel is limited. It requires the legislature be divided into two Chambers. The junior Chamber is for 500 Deputies over 30 years of age and makes law; the senior Chamber is for 250 men over 40 years and ratifies (or not) the enactments of the junior Chamber. Half the membership of both chambers is replaced every year by elections held in the Primary Assemblies.
The legislators elect five Directors of whom one retires annually. They are based in the Tuilleries (the National Palace) protected by their own guard of 300 men and another guard of 1,800 men provided by the Departments. They wear distinctive clothes. Candidates for the Chambers or Directory must own property. Once they have served two terms they must then stand down for two years. Citizenship is confined to those over 21 years who make some regular financial payment to the State or have served in the army in the present war. Citizens must know how to read and write and understand mechanics.
Sat 7th Nov 1795
M Bocqueret, the Governor of Belle Ile (dominating Quiberon Bay and therefore an important staging post for British naval support to the Royalists in Brittany), is blockaded by an English squadron. Capt Ellison of HMS Standard issued an invitation to the Belle Ile Governor on 26th June:
We defeated the French Brest fleet on 23rd June and have given powerful support to the Royalists in Brittany by landing an army composed entirely of French émigrés. The French fleet is trapped in L’Orient and cannot escape. You have no relief to hope for. Your supplies are cut off by me and your provisions are exhausted. I do not require your submission to England. I am not seeking for sovereignty of Belle Ile.
I only wish to land French troops and you will continue to be largely in control. I wish you to acknowledge Louis XVII as your King whereupon George III will be your ally and feed and protect you. All your expenses will be repaid. Consider the tragedy that is likely to overtake your island people if you refuse.
On my ship are two French commissaries deputed by the Royalist Army to treat with you for the welfare of your people. My Commander-in-Chief will surely ratify any agreement that is made. Your emissaries will be respected.
Bocqueret replied to the English officer who delivered the summons that he is an upholsterer and a Republican. He has 5,000 men in garrison. Perhaps the food will be exhausted (he is thought to have 3 weeks provisions) but he will fight as long as he can. The English messenger was well treated.
Sat 7th Nov 1795
Letter from St Vincent, West Indies, 30th March:
The natives (Caribs) are in rebellion under a chap called Chatoye and have burnt the estates of the English landowners and the crop of sugar in the ground.13 The English planters have withdrawn within Kingstown to await military support.
The Caribs raised the tricolor on Dorsetshire Hill. They are joined by 150 Europeans (likely all French) and themselves have about 300 men. They have got the cannon from Stubb’s Battery and are trying to move them to use against us. So far they have mounted a 6-pounder and a 4-pounder.
A Company of the 46th regiment has now arrived from Martinique and joined the remnants of the 60th regiment. They have a couple of field pieces and are keeping the Caribs away with the occasional shot. After some extra reinforcements arrived, we attacked them at Dorsetshire Hill. Chatoye and many of his men were killed.
We believe the Caribs intended to exterminate us. They were not trying to conquer territory like a regular enemy. On this assumption, we have suspended the rules of war and executed all of them together with all the Frenchmen who were with them. They had all made Oaths of loyalty to George III when we evicted the French and assumed the government of this island. They were clearly guilty of rebellion.
Sat 14th Nov 1795
London news:
A huge supply of grain arrived at London from Danzig and Konigsberg on 6th July.
The émigré army being assembled in England is now 30,000 strong.
Sat 14th Nov 1795
Copenhagen, 6th June – Several fires broke out yesterday. They have been burning for 1½ days. The Grand Magazine is destroyed (but the contents were removed). Old Holm, the Admiralty College and the Old Strand are destroyed. Hundreds of houses along the canal are burnt including those of the rich merchants. Today the Council House is on fire. The orphanage and the synagogue are burned. The House of the Lombards (House of Assistance) is saved. The damage is mostly confined to the old town. The loss runs to millions. The army and navy are mobilised to create fire breaks and restore calm. The hereditary Prince (of Hesse, Augustenberg and Wurtemberg) has gone to Sweden for discussions. Cause of the fire is uncertain but arson is a possibility.
Editor - extinguished 9th June. Loss $12 millions (£2½ millions). An investigation has been commenced.
Sat 14th Nov 1795
National Convention, 23rd June (from Journal de Frankfurt) – M/s Blaaw and Meyer (members of the States General) have been admitted to the National Convention as Ministers Plenipotentiary representing the Netherlands. The new blue/white/red flag of the Batavian Republic was raised. The Plenipotentiaries said:
We Dutch wished to join the destiny of France. The English have retained the valuable Dutch national property taken by the Stadtholder when he fled to that country but our fertile lands will soon replace it. France has now learned the secret of Dutch commercial success. The Dutch respect liberty and will die to protect it.
President Louvet replied for France:
Your ancestors were first to obtain liberty. To some extent we have emulated your former achievement and offer our gratitude for your example. Your rich cargoes have been stolen but that is to be expected of the Stadtholder and the English Minister. Always remember that on the banks of the Thames as well as the Scheldt there are people who applaud justice and humanity. The English people do not approve the Punic faith of their government but it is impossible to forecast what will happen.
The only certainty is that we will be allied for ever. We will together sail to the Thames and establish a new government that delivers the English people from their enslavement. France guarantees the Netherlands full liberty and independence.
Sat 14th Nov 1795
National Convention, 23rd June - Boissy reported on progress with the draft Constitution:
“This gift of the 18th century philosophers is proceeding. We are no longer fettered by the various parties that sought to destroy our Revolution. We are no longer rushed into a Constitution that would not answer our needs. Equality and liberty are the principles we uphold.”
Boissy retraced the events of the Revolution dwelling on 31st May and the Jacobin conspiracies to continue anarchy, their plundering of the nation:
“We have studied the previous Constitution, intending to preserve all that was useful in it, but it is a Constitution for Anarchy. It submitted France’s destiny to a single Legislative Chamber whose acts would be sanctioned by the people. Such an arrangement might readily have been subverted by greedy legislators. Also our 25 million people are all variously employed. Some are farmers, others are artists. The deliberative assembly of the old Constitution would have destroyed our social order.”
He also criticised the Executive Council of 24 Deputies and the provisions permitting insurrection.
A principle of the new Constitution is to divide the power to make law. Equality is established by nurturing respect for the law. Absolute equality is a chimera. The best people to act as legislators are those with the biggest stake in the country – property owners. We propose to make a property qualification for membership of the Legislature. This is to ensure that all legislators acknowledge the work ethic and our country does not revert to a state of nature. Everyone, rich or poor, gets equal treatment. There will be no distinctions of rank. If a Frenchman becomes a hireling and submits to another for his sustenance he is unqualified for citizenship and will be classed with the illiterate and the unskilled. All master/servant distinctions are illegal.
The Legislative body will be divided into two Councils, both elected by the people. They differ from each other only in the numbers and ages of the Councillors. The Council of 500 will propose law; the Council of the Elders will approve and perfect those legislative proposals. One half of the legislature in both Houses will be re-elected every two years. The Legislative Chamber will have public galleries adequate to seat the public to a number of one half the number of Legislators. A guard shall be employed to maintain order. Its officers will be drawn from all the Departments.
Five legislators (from either chamber) will be appointed to form an Executive Council. These men may be criticised by legislators but may not be dismissed. This Executive Council will be called the Directory. One of these five will be replaced annually. Each will preside for three months in turn and be responsible for custody and use of the national sign and seal. National administration will be undertaken by ministers appointed by the Directory. The Executive Councillors will wear a distinctive uniform and be guarded at all times. Their salaries will be adequate for them to maintain our national dignity when meeting foreign ambassadors.
Provisions for the Judiciary – the article hereafter becomes illegible
Sat 28th Nov 1795
National Convention, 1st June – Doulcet of CPW announced a defeat due to the efforts of the British Cabinet and the émigrés. On 11th June the Brest Fleet relieved General Vence in command of the garrison at Belle Ile. Returning to Brest it encountered a storm and was blown out to sea where it met the British fleet and fought and lost a battle.
The British are preparing the Morbihan coast for invasion by the émigré army. Deputy Champaux has checked the coastal defences at Finisterre and is prepared.
Sat 28th Nov 1795
The House of Commons was cleared of strangers on 1st June before a letter from Prince of Wales concerning his debts was read. J Anstruther, the Prince’s Treasurer, said ‘We need to support the dignity and splendour of the Crown; French influence was causing a degradation of the institution of monarchy”.
Pitt said the Commons regarded the House of Brunswick with affection and loyalty but also felt a duty to the British people. Some restriction of the Prince’s income would be necessary to discharge old debts.
Duncombe said scarcity was developing, the middle class cannot get all its usual goods, the poor are barely subsisting. If the Prince is pleading poverty he should ask his Dad for a loan.
Curwen thought George III should contribute something to the general settlement of the Prince’s debts. Charles Grey thought the Prince’s private debts were of no concern to parliament. Dundas said it was inappropriate to ask George III to rob his Hanoverian subjects in order to pay the debts of the heir to the British throne.14
Anstruther said the Duchy of Cornwall was formerly a perquisite of the eldest surviving son of the Monarch. If the Prince of Wales dies it will belong to the Duke of York. It is not personal property.
Lambton said the monarchy was a national asset. All the millions for the war, all the subsidies and loans, were to protect the Constitution, secure public happiness and tranquillity and destroy French principles.
Sumner thought the Prince’s annual establishment of £125,000 was enough.
Sat 12th Dec 1795
Portrait of Paris, 10th June 1795 by an English visitor:
At 6 am women and children are seen crossing the streets with pieces of bread having queued overnight outside the bakeries. At 9am the stock-jobbers, laden with bags of gold and silver, walk to the Palais Égalité to speculate on the assignats, the sale of national property or any other thing. The National Convention spends its time in accusations between members. The few members concerned to promote the important affairs of the Republic are often silenced by the party which promotes anarchy (the Jacobins).
2pm is dinner time. All Paris is filled with traffic. Every house is a veritable armoury. The dinners are feasts of seasonal delicacies with the choicest white wines. Politics is never permitted to interfere with eating.
After dinner many Parisians adjourn to one of the 13 theatres in Paris. These are so popular it is invariably necessary to reserve seats. The shows are elegant but there is a shortage of actors.
After the theatre there is gambling. Gold and silver circulates just like under the old system.
Then one goes to a ‘traiteur’ for supper where, for 50 livres of assignats per head, you may enjoy fine bread and wine and never suspect there are shortages.
Fine horse-drawn vehicles are again conspicuous. The Grecian fashion of the ladies with the robe above the knee and opened at the side has been abandoned by the fashionable for a kind of chemise with the sash tied high so the neck is well displayed. Whilst the dress of both men and women is simple, it is augmented by valuable accessories.
Visitors to Paris find the Hotels and Inns are generally full and one must visit several to find rooms. They are filled with speculators from all over Europe. Paris displays both extraordinary opulence and distressing poverty.
Sat 28th Nov 1795
Letter from Dundas to Lord Penrhin the representative of the West Indian planters, who request for a fleet and garrisons:
“In almost every respect the present warfare in West Indies is different from any that ever occurred. The object of our enemy (the slaves) is savage devastation rather than conquest beneficial to themselves.”
Sat 12th Dec 1795
Commons, 11th June – Commercial difficulties:
The British merchants of Grenada and St Vincents have petitioned for relief. Pitt said the petition deserved serious attention. The French have freed the slaves in their West Indian colonies and British slaves now expect the same freedom. They are rioting all over our West Indian colonies.
Fox said the relief requested by the planters was for the purchase of replacement slaves from Africa. He opposed the petition.
Pitt said a similar commercial difficulty had arisen in 1793 and been solved by the Mercantile Loan Bill (called the Commercial Credit Bill in the newspapers). It had rescued British commerce from stagnation pursuant on excessive speculation. The capital then required had been small – £2.5 millions had resurrected trade – and that was all that was required now. It was not a problem of inadequate military security in the colonies. The force sent out had been adequate except for the reverses experienced last year.
Pitt’s colleague Dundas agreed. He mentioned the precedent of relief to St Kitts, Jamaica and Barbados in a former war (in Queen Anne’s reign). He said 20,000 troops had been sent to West Indies in the course of this year and the number sent with Sir Charles Grey had been sufficient for the conquest of the Windward Islands.
Fox said he disputed both statistics and accused Dundas of lying to the House. He had no doubt it was our inadequate force that had caused our loss of Guadaloupe.
Sir Wm Pulteney feared the unrest would curtail West Indian commerce and the colonial requirement for credit from London bankers would stagnate. Whatever the cause, some relief was essential.
M A Taylor said all the many West Indian merchants he knew said the problem derived from inadequate protection of British West Indian colonies for which Pitt was responsible.
Maurice Robinson said he thought the resolution of the matter at cabinet level came down to arithmetic. The West Indian trade was worth £6 millions to England; Pitt had offered Austria £6 millions of which the Emperor had accepted £4.5 millions; that left £1.5 millions for the merchants of Grenada and St Vincents.15
The Select Committee (members unidentified) considering the relief of Grenada and St Vincents has reported that the owners and managers of British plantations in those islands were necessarily absent at harvest time in 1794 and their crops, their buildings, etc had all been destroyed by the slaves.
Most of this year’s production was lost and next year’s would be reduced. The reporters calculated that the loss of remittances plus the costs of restoring the plantations was £600,000 – 700,000 from each island = £1.2 to £1.4 millions.
The West Indian planters had as usual pledged their income from the crop to pay-off their City bank creditors. Without this year’s income, their problem has become our problem. They needed £1.2 – £1.4 millions to pay-off the banks and maintain their credit.
The banks at present have plenty of money but they are only lending for 2-3 months and then to selected creditors with the best security. The banks would not provide the relief which the petitioners consequently sought from the people. The Select Committee recommended relief for the banks.
Sat 19th Dec 1795
National Convention, 30th June – Treilbard spoke for the CPS. He said French fortitude and military triumphs have procured peace treaties which reveal the world is beginning to recognise the Republican government. The time has come when we must reconsider the fate of the Capet family. While our country was threatened we had to detain them. Our strength has lessened the interference of foreign countries in our domestic affairs.
We must also consider the fate of our Commissioners Quinet, Lamarque, Camus and Bancal who, with Minister Bournonville, were handed over to Austria. Also the fate of our Ambassadors Maret and Semonville who were abducted on neutral territory and taken to Vienna.
The National Convention has always accepted its supreme duty is to protect the safety of the people. Austrian violence is unjustifiable. The arrest of our national representatives is particularly egregious. Their persons should be respected.
However we will not make a separate negotiation for their freedom. Our Generals will include this matter in their negotiations for peace with Austria. When these representatives reach our frontier, we will release the daughter of Capet to whoever Austria sends to receive her. Madame Chantereine is the girl’s appointed governess and whatever she requires for the young girl is provided by CPS. All other Bourbon family members may leave at the same time.
This proposal was unanimously adopted by the National Convention.
Sat 19th Dec 1795
Journal Generale de Frankfurt, 16th July – Location of the Capet family members:
Louis XVI’s daughter Maria Theresa is held in the Temple; his eldest brother is at Verona in Italy; the eldest brother’s wife and her own brother are guests of the King of Sardinia in Turin; Count d’Artois and his eldest son are in the Duchy of Oldenburg; his wife, the Countess, is in Turin; his second son aged 17 years is at Mulheim; The sister of Louis XVI, the Princess Royal of Sardinia, is in Turin; Louis’ two aunts, Maria Adelaide and Victoire Louisa, are at Rome; the Duchess of Orleans is in Paris; her eldest son is in Switzerland; her two youngest sons are in Fort St John in Marseilles; her daughter is in Fribourg in Switzerland; the Prince of Conde with his son and grandson are in Mulheim; his daughter-in-law is in Marseilles and his daughter is in Fribourg.
Sat 19th Dec 1795
General Smith MP’s speech in the Commons, 10th March 1795:
1,600 good officers of the Company’s army in India have petitioned me to redress their grievances. They earlier send numerous petitions to the Company and one to the King. They worry that the reorganisation of the Indian army will entrench an inferior status upon them.
They have three main complaints:
1/ that they are abandoned when they complete their service,
2/ rank will no longer relate to length of service or responsibility, and
3/ Indian staff officers are considered inferior to British staff officers.
….. there follows columns of whinge …..
In the present state of affairs it is anticipated that France will soon send troops to the East. The National Convention recently sent three deputies to Mauritius. The French have been removed from every factory they once held in Asia except Mauritius and Reunion. These three deputies are going to re-establish French influence.
M. Guby of National Convention told that assembly:
“Our Asian possessions have fallen to the English. We are not yet strong enough to restore them. We must be both bold and wise. It is dangerous to dare too much or too little. England is exhausted but the revenue she gets from Asia is enormous and sustains her. The goods brought to London are now so extensive that the Company’s fleet is inadequate to carry them. History reveals that the rulers of Hindustan have been the most opulent in the world - the ancient soil is continually productive.
“It is the wealth of Asia that enables the ‘tyrant of the seas’ to dispute with us. It is in Asia that England must be attacked. The empire she has usurped overseas is an important source of her wealth and must be destroyed. This will be fulfilled by the ruin of British commerce in India. So long as England retains Asia she has the funds to raise enemies against us externally and internally.
“It is inconsistent with our principles to retain possessions in India. Once the English are expelled the trade of Asia will be opened to all. Mauritius commands all India. From there we will retake the old French and Dutch possessions and drive the English out. Without Mauritius we can never fight battles at a distance of 5,000 leagues.”
General Smith’s Indian army petitioners note that:
HM’s forces in India are less than 10% of the Company’s army establishment. The Company’s army is peopled by officers with great experience. England needs a well motivated force to contend with France should she dispute control of India with us.
A second matter is the temptation to Company officers to enter service with native princes. Our mastery of India relies on dividing the native princes, preventing their establishing armed and disciplined infantry and, more fundamentally, on preventing their understanding the proper use of artillery. The acquisition of lands in India has been achieved by a small force. In England you would not for a moment consider sending such a small force to obtain such a great prize.
We maintain these lands in Company ownership with a native force nearly as numerous as those of the native princes. Our tactics are slowly recognised and understood by the Indians and every renewal of war teaches them new lessons. We depend entirely on the native troops for our preservation. Their superiority over their countrymen is due to the training they receive and the skill and example of the Indian army officers in directing them. In this way native Indian troops have been steady in the face of bayonet charges by French infantry.
The native princes recognise our advantage and begin to understand our military science. They already employ European officers to train their infantry and superintend their use of artillery. Hyder Ali, the late usurper of Mysore, employed French officers to completely reorganise his army. He learned from us not simply the value of training and discipline but also the importance of regular payment. He became so formidable that all his neighbours feared him. His son Tippoo Sahib built on his father’s work. He compelled British prisoners to provide training for his army. He absorbed the lands of his neighbours and came to have a frontier contiguous with ours. We were forced to confront and diminish him but the effort was enormous.
This facility to lease Company officers allowed the great Mahratta Madajee Scindia to acquire land, wealth and influence. A few years ago a Company officer, seeing no prospect of promotion in the Company’s army, resigned his commission and joined Scindia. Very soon he was made General and given the command of ten battalions of sepoys and an appropriate amount of artillery. Since Madajee’s death the same officer continues in the same high rank under the successor, Dowlat Rao.
It is not simply a matter of outbidding the native princes (which we cannot do) but of giving Company officers better prospects and a competency when they retire. British officers serve in the armies of Russia and the Netherlands (and until very recently France) because they get better terms and promotion prospects.
In Europe the armies are all similarly trained and no particular advantage derives to a country employing foreign officers. It is not so in India. Dundas should know that this is not a complaint of a few officers but the entire establishment. It is not extortion but justice.
Dundas reminded the House of the alarming circumstances that Clive faced in April 1766 by a combination of his officers against him. He wrote to Calcutta “such a spirit must at all hazards be suppressed at its birth, unless we determine on seeing the authority of the President and Council insulted, and the government of these provinces pass from the civil to the military department.” Fortunately that spirit was suppressed. A full history of the transactions is contained in the records of the House of Commons.
This matter is under discussion between the Board of Control and the Company’s Directors but a wide difference exists between the positions of the parties. This difference of opinion includes an important constitutional question.
Sat 26th Dec 1795
According to Calcutta papers the Company has been permitted to ship Bengal grain to London duty free in whatever ships are available. The offer requires departure Indian port before 30th April. The irresistible temptation to speculators in India is the linked permission on the return leg to bring back British merchandise of any type (except war materiel).
Since 1790 wheat in England has been worth an average 45/- to 50/- per 70 lb bushel but in July 1795 the price had risen to 80/- (triggering the exception in the Corn Laws). At the same time the London price of rice, which had averaged 15/- - 16/- per cwt (112 lbs), rose to 38/- per cwt.
Sat 26th Dec 1795
Government loan paper in London is rising. In July the 3% consols were 71½ and India stock was 202. There is uncertainty why stocks are rising. Brokers variously attribute it to an inflow of funds from Europe, to our recent naval victories, to the impending safe arrival of the East India fleet, to the disturbed state of the continent pursuant on the war and, contrarily, to the prospect of peace.
Sat 26th Dec 1795
Calcutta news from the Asiatic Mirror, 25th Nov – The American ships America (Hubbard) and Ganges (Tingey) have arrived. The latter has brought a large supply of Madeira wine. The Danish ship Kobenhaben has also brought a shipment of Madeira wine for Madras.
From the Ganges we learn that America is getting fat on war in Europe. A valuable trade with France has developed and American ships are welcomed in French ports. American agricultural produce is in demand and the Americans get a good price. They are paid in specie.
Its not only cargo to Europe. The Americans take home 50 –100 emigrants each trip. These are useful artisans fleeing the war with their entire capital.
The Philadelphia Gazette of 4th May expresses it well:
“Dutch exiles in Britain are coming to America. Their wealth and skills will enhance our own. Our neutrality honours the political skill of our Federal government. People are coming from every European country. We will soon be the emporium of the world, unaffected by the continual wars of Europe. We are peaceful, industrious and independent. We receive tribute from every country. Soon the ‘states of Columbia’ will combine the commerce of Carthage with the arts and sciences of Athens.”
We also hear the descendants of the French settlers at New Orleans and along the Mississippi are expected to soon throw off the Spanish yoke.
Sat 26th Dec 1795
One of the extra sugar ships Bombay sent to London sailed from thence on 10th July and has returned with news. The other country ships are expected to return with the Company’s outbound fleet in January.
The price of bread in London in July was 1/- per quartern loaf. The City merchants have subscribed £1,000 relief to the industrious poor. Other large subscriptions have also been raised. Large supplies of grain are expected from Canada and the Baltic. Sugar in July was 63/3d per cwt., exclusive of import duty.
Sat 26th Dec 1795
The Times of London 4th July:
4,000 émigrés have embarked at the Elbe for Jersey under de Sombreuil to form the infantry of the émigré army. de Sombreuil’s father was guillotined by Robespierre. The force will serve under Lord Moira. The cavalry for these regiments will also move to Jersey. Other French Royalist regiments are forming in Germany, where they are called ‘white cockade’ (Bourbon) regiments. They will also go to Jersey. Moira is authorised to employ as many émigrés as he can find. This force will acknowledge Louis XVIII as King of the French. The landing place for the Royalist army is expected to be in the River Auri or River Vannes in Morbihan.
Admiral Parker has landed 1,800 English troops at Santo Domingo in West Indies. It is insufficient to conquer the island but enough to thwart the slave army and revive the hopes of the planters.
Sat 2nd Jan 1796
Courier du Bas Rhin - Thomas Paine addressed the National Convention on 7th July 1795 concerning the new Constitution:
“I have been persecuted in England for defending the French Revolution and I have been persecuted in France for defending liberty. In neither case was I persecuted by the people of England or France. In both cases I was persecuted by despots. Neither experience has persuaded me to change my principles or conduct.
“If there is a fault in the Republican Constitution it is better to expose it now. A Constitution has two leading points – its principles and its organisation – and they should complement each other.
“This draft Constitution describes what a citizen is but excludes all who pay no tax. It therefore violates the first three articles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man.”
Sat 2nd Jan 1796
On 5th June, the House of Commons debated the Prince of Wales’ debts:
On George III’s accession he was voted £800,000 a year and he personally assured parliament that he would not overstep that limit. To insure he performed his agreement, an Act was passed disbarring ministers from receiving their salaries until all other claims on the Civil List had been discharged. Since that assurance was given, a debt has accumulated in the Civil List which, with compound interest, is now £7 millions.
When the establishment of the Prince was first discussed, the Duke of Portland, then as now a minister, thought £100,000 was appropriate. George III disagreed and got it halved. Very soon the Prince was in debt and his debts have continued to increase over time.
In 1787 we voted £160,000 for the Prince of which £60,000 was for Carlton House. A one-off payment of £80,000 was voted for fitting-out the residence. All the money he has received from us averages just over £75,000 a year; a good deal less than ministers originally thought fit.
That year (1787) a pledge was wrung from the Prince to incur no more debts. It was actually not the Prince’s pledge but the King’s who put it in his annual message. No-one knows who put the pledge in the King’s speech (i.e. the King or the Minister). The extravagance of Carlton House was condoned by ministers who forced through a Bill making the palace a public work so it could not be distrained by the Prince’s creditors.
In 1792 Lord Thurlow obtained the agreement of the Prince of Wales that he would retire from public life and liquidate his debts. He was required to ‘promise’ to not apply to parliament for funds. He agreed he would not involve himself in party politics or permit his financial embarrassment to influence his political views. This contract was approved by the House of Commons in autumn of 1792 but was never actioned. At about the same time the Prince of Wales accepted a loan from M. Égalité.
Some of his debts are to tradesmen who should be paid. Others are to staff on his establishment, some of whom have not been paid for 3½ years. The Prince may not need more money at all but simply a better financial manager.
In the last reign the privy purse was £36,000 a year. At the beginning of George III’s reign it was £48,000. In 1777 the debts of the Civil List were paid off and £100,000 was added annually. The privy purse became £60,000 and the Queen’s establishment was increased to £50,000. All the King’s and Queen’s houses and villas were completed and decorated by the nation. As they did not use their own money, they must be flush with cash.
Sheridan proposed docking £10,000 a year from the King, £5,000 a year from the Queen and terminating those sinecures that required no work to the extent of another £10,000 a year. He would not displace the holders whilst in office but cancel the sinecures as they fell vacant. This would create a fund to top-up the Prince’s income to the £100,000 originally thought appropriate.
Dundas replied that Sheridan merely sought to destroy the independence of the King and his proposals were foolish.
Fox wondered why Dundas found the granting of any assistance from the Civil List to be improper.
Sat 16th Jan 1796
The military war in Europe has gone badly but the commercial war in the colonies is progressing satisfactorily. A fleet of 300 merchantmen has arrived at London in July 1795 from West Indies bringing sugar, coffee, etc. The India and China fleets have also safely arrived in the Channel. England now engrosses the preponderance of colonial productions and brings it to London for resale.
Sat 16th Jan 1796
Letter from Brussels, 20th August – The French representatives deputed to Belgium have gone to Antwerp to proclaim the opening of the Scheldt. The ceremony occurred on 17th Aug and three merchantmen immediately entered Antwerp harbour.
Sat 16th Jan 1796
Peace has been agreed between France and Spain at Basel. Francois Barthelemy, the French ambassador to Switzerland, reached the agreement with the Spanish King’s representative, Domingo d’Yriaete.
France restores all the conquered Spanish lands. All requisitions on the Spanish people in the occupied lands will cease and their outstanding debts to France will be cancelled. The frontier will follow the peaks of the Pyrenees.
Spain transfers to France her lands in San Domingo and the Spanish Antilles together with their forts, cannon and military stores. Any Spanish people in the ceded lands may remove within a year. Those remaining will be required to make oaths of allegiance to France.
The Treaty of Commerce in force between the countries before the present war commenced is restored. French and Spanish merchants may enter the territories of the other, reside there and open offices for business. Each will submit to the laws and usages of the country he resides in. All prisoners-of-war will be exchanged. This applies also to Portuguese troops serving with the Spanish armies.
The terms of peace are extended to the Netherlands.
France accepts the mediation of the Spanish King in settling differences with Portugal, Naples, Sardinia, Parma and the other Italian states. She accepts the King’s mediation with any other belligerents who may apply to him.16
The treaties become binding on exchange of the ratified copies.
Done at Basel, 22nd July 1795
Sat 23rd Jan 1796
Britain and France have agreed to a regular exchange of prisoners. The French representative organising this is M. Chatres. The ports to be used are Dover, Calais and Dunkirk. The first British cartel ship Two Sisters sailed from Dover on 4th August carrying many French sailors. The exchanges will be man for man and will recognise rank and station.
As France has far more British prisoners than we have French, a good many Englishmen will continue to be detained under this agreement.
Sat 23rd Jan 1796
England prepares to renew war:
Count Hantefort has arrived in London from Verona with despatches from the émigré Louis XVIII for the Court of St James. Hantefort interviewed the Duc de Harcourt at Egham, then continued to Portsmouth to deliver letters to Comte d’Artois. Hantefort brought confirmation of the death of the child Louis XVII. It is unclear whether the British court will go into mourning.
The Duc de Bourbon is at Stade waiting a frigate to bring him to Spithead.
A great expedition for the invasion of France is assembling at Portsmouth. The army is in two divisions. Major General Doyle has the van consisting of mainly English troops but including Comte d’Artois and some other French nobles just arrived from Germany. Several of Louis XVIII’s party have arrived. His aide-de-camp Count de Serent is one; M de la Chapelle is another who will be major general in the Royalist army in Brittany; M de la Rosiere will be quarter-master general. The second division will be commanded by the Earl of Moira. The Duc d’Angouleme and Duc de Bourbon will join Moira’s division. It is supposed that all the French field officers will serve in this division as well as the émigré cavalry which numbers 2,000. The objects of the army are supposed to be secret.
Sat 23rd Jan 1796
Reports from St Petersburg say 20-30 ships have been fitted-out to cruise against the French.
Sat 30th Jan 1796
Letter from London, 21st Aug – The Comte d’Artois has embarked with 4,000 men for La Vendee (south of Moira’s British invasion). A naval force will be sent to Belle Ile at the same time as he lands in France. The Royalists in France are expected to flock to Monsieur’s (Comte d’Artois) standard as soon as he lands – all the émigrés say he is widely popular in France.
Charette, who recently accepted the National Convention’s amnesty, has written to d’Artois assuring him of an unopposed landing as the General is blocking the Republican forces in Nantes. Charette says the Republicans are disorderly. He reports a famine in Normandy whilst his Royalist force is well provisioned.
Sat 23rd Jan 1796
Courier Universal (a Paris paper) reports the National Convention proceedings at which the British invasion of Brittany was debated:
The British defeated our Channel fleet on 23rd June and commenced their invasion. On 26th June they entered Quiberon Bay with many transports from Belle Ile. The coastal defences had been attacked by the Chouans and the following day the British landed their army. Aurai fell into British hands. Vannes was evacuated and the French defenders assembled at Ploermel. A force of about 3,000 was sent to reconnoitre Aurai. It engaged the enemy who fell back into the town. Some of our troops followed-up too close and were killed or captured.
On 29th another 1,500 French troops arrived from L’Orient under General Josuet. The enemy abandoned Aurai and retreated to Carnac near Quiberon Bay and camped. We re-occupied Aurai and found some of the merchants had been carried off.
On 30th June the English brought 3 frigates and another ship-of-war into Quiberon Bay and bombarded Quiberon all day. On 1st July the enemy tried to force our line. We repulsed them and took their cargo of 3,000 military uniforms. The enemy then entrenched themselves outside Quiberon, besieged and occupied it. The garrison of 300 men were to be shot by the Chouans but the English officer countermanded the order. On 4th July the enemy tried to sally-out but was turned back by our encircling forces.
The British made a diversion up the Vannes River with six armed boats. We sunk some cutters to obstruct their progress and they seized 6 barges and retired with the loot. On 7th July the enemy again attempted to sally-out but was repulsed. They then had their women, children and camp followers reboard the transports in the bay. The émigré army numbers about 7,000 men. It is reinforced by some 10,000 resident Chouans.
At the same time as the invasion of Brittany, a French army crossed the Rhine and occupied Dusseldorf. The Austrians were discomforted.
Sat 30th Jan 1796
Ministers of the German Rhine states have assembled at Basel to negotiate peace with France. On 13th July they were joined by a representative of the Austrian Emperor.
M de Spielman, the Austrian ambassador to Switzerland, says the Emperor will exchange the detained French minister, diplomats and legislators for Louis XVI’s daughter.
Sat 30th Jan 1796
The Baron Hardenberg (Prussia) on 21st July asked the French armies that have crossed the Rhine to withdraw. Riveaud and Merlin de Thionville have demurred. They say they are mere Generals not diplomats. They referred the Baron to the National Convention. They say they cannot stop fighting.
Hardenberg has also written to Barthelemy in Basel on 28th July advising that the Prussian King demanded on 3rd July that the Austrian Emperor make peace with France. He said this showed Prussia is performing its agreement. At the convention on 27th May the Prussian King approved the German Rhine states’ policy of neutrality.
The Prussians wish to take advantage of the clause in the Treaty of Basel (between France and Spain) to ‘other belligerents’ to make peace. The King wishes to resume communications across the Rhine and re-establish commerce between the countries so he can disband his army and end the expense of war.
Hardenberg unilaterally offers to secure the following terms – an immediate armistice between the Austrian Empire and the Republic which will continue whilst negotiations are held; all French contributions and requisitions on German towns to cease during the armistice; negotiations to be held at Frankfurt-am-Main from which town all foreign troops are first to be withdrawn. “I invite you to instantly send a Plenipotentiary”, he wrote.
Barthelemy replied that the wish for peace was reciprocated but the proposed armistice did not accord with the interests of France. He was pleased the German states had asked for Prussian intermediary to make peace but insisted that the German states themselves open negotiations under the umbrella of French friendship towards Berlin.
Sat 30th Jan 1796
National Convention, 27th July – a report of the émigré invasion:
An émigré army has returned to Brittany and has proclaimed order and royalty at Vannes. They lost the advantage of surprise and wasted a huge amount of English money. They twice tried to cut their way out. On the 2nd occasion on 16th July they were severely defeated. If we had cavalry available we might have conclusively ended their plans then.
We decided to prevent their re-embarkation in order to make them amenable to French law. This was delayed by a bombardment by the English warships in the Bay but eventually we took the fort of Penthievre. We left two battalions to guard it and pursued the rebels into Quiberon Bay. The émigrés sued for peace but the British warships continued firing and we required they stop first. We fired on and sunk many of the boats they sent in to take-off the émigrés and eventually the rebels surrendered. We captured or killed 10,000 rebels. Several were armed with poison-tipped poignards.
A military commission was immediately established to mete out justice to them. Several of the prisoners complained they had been starved by the English to encourage them to take part. These men deserted the aristocrats as soon as they landed and gave us the plans of the enemy. They told us 9 regiments of émigrés would arrive on 19th July and we took them all the following day.
We have captured 70,000 muskets, 150,000 pairs of shoes, spare uniforms for 40,000 and an immense quantity of provisions and ammunition. We learned from the prisoners that Pitt proposed to make Quiberon Bay the depot for the army he proposed to raise in France.
We are reviewing their correspondence. They had expected help from the Jacobins which was frustrated by the fall of that faction.
Treuilhard for the CPS said ‘we have triumphed over our cruellest enemy. The other nations are befriending us. The Minister of Venice is in Paris and will address the National Convention on 30th July.
It was agreed that the two captured Royalist Generals - Fache and Bouchotte - should be tried by a special jury.
Sat 20th Feb 1796
Brittany – Count de Sombreuil who is 28 years old, together with the Bishop of Dol and fourteen priests who were captured at Quiberon Bay during Moira’s invasion of Brittany, have all been guillotined. The Courier Francais says there are another 400 émigré prisoners at Vannes who will be likewise executed.
de Sombreuil seems to have not been the usual avaricious French noble. He acted bravely under Prussian and English command in the Pay Bas where his abilities were noted and his suitability for the Brittany campaign realised. It was his arrangements which largely secured the escape of the 2,000 émigrés who survived the Quiberon Bay fiasco.
Sat 6th Feb 1796
The AngloAmerican treaty was agreed between the British plenipotentiary Wm Wyndham, Baron Grenville of Wootton, Privy Councillor and Foreign Secretary, and John Jay, Chief Justice of the United States of America:
Peace is declared. The British will withdraw their Canadian army to within their own boundary by 1st June 1796. America may extend her jurisdiction to the frontier except in the immediate vicinity of the garrisoned forts until they have been handed-over. All settlers and traders in the forts are to be protected. They may stay or go as they please. They may sell or retain their land and houses as they wish. Those whose property puts them within the USA are not obliged to assume American citizenship immediately. They have one year to decide.
Native Indians, Americans and British may all pass freely across the frontier (but the territory of the Hudson’s Bay Company must be respected). This allowance does not extend to American ships entering British ports or rivers, except the small boats presently trading between Quebec and Montreal. The headwaters of the Mississippi and the ports along its eastern bank will be open to both countries (the river is to be jointly surveyed to ensure it is in fact the Mississippi). Permitted American goods may be exported to British Canada as before at the same duty (applicable to European goods) that is paid by British settlers. British goods will be accepted in American ports at the same duty as those imported on American ships. Neither party will levy duty on furs traded by the Indians. The native Indians will pay no tolls to bring their goods to market. Both governments commit to promoting amicable trade and to providing impartial justice in disputes.
Numerous British merchants allege debts due from American merchants. Some claims are very old and the documentary evidence of their payment is lost. If full compensation is unavailable from the delinquent merchant, the US government will make the payments. All claims are to be settled in 18 months.
Numerous American merchants have sustained losses due to prize-taking which cannot be adjusted judicially. The British Govt undertakes to compensate them provided the claimants have preserved their rights and in no way been negligent or delayed action.
British merchants also claim losses due to prize-taking in American ports. They will be settled in the same way.
It is agreed that British citizens owning lands in America and American citizens owning lands in Canada continue to have good title.
A reciprocally perfect right of navigation and commerce is proclaimed between the British and American peoples subject to the following restrictions. Americans may trade lawful American goods to British colonies in West Indies in American ships of up to 70 tons burden. They pay the same charges as levied in American ports on British ships. Americans may buy and export lawful colonial products from West Indies on the same terms as British traders but the Americans may ship only to America. It is expressly agreed that American merchants will not carry molasses, sugar, coffee, cocoa or cotton from British colonies or from the USA to any part of the world except America. British ships are permitted to trade American goods to West Indies and West Indian goods to America on the same terms as American ships.
These trade agreements remain in force of the duration of the war with France and for two years after peace negotiations commence.
American ships may trade American goods to all the Company’s ports in Asia and may load Eastern goods for American ports only. This allowance does not extend to the coasting trade of Asia. No licence to settle in British domains is created by this article. All Americans visiting British ports will comply with local laws.
A reciprocal commerce is allowed between the domains of George III in Europe (Britain, Gibraltar, Corsica, Hanover and the King’s other German fiefs) and America. Americans may reside there and rent houses and warehouses. The ships and goods of each country will pay the same duties, but the British reserve the right to levy a tonnage duty on American ships entering British European ports equal to that payable by British ships in American ports.
Each country may appoint consuls to regulate their nationals who, being acceptable to their hosts, will supervise trade.
Ships suspected of carrying enemy property or suspected of carrying goods to the enemy shall be brought to a convenient port and that part of the cargo that is contraband will be confiscated while the remainder may be carried on. To prevent delay whilst adjudicating, the master or owner can opt to undertake to give security to meet the adjudged award and continue his voyage.
Contraband is defined as all those articles used to carry on war by land or sea plus timber, tar, sheet copper, sails and hemp in excess of the ships own requirements. Ships carrying provisions (not contraband in the Law of Nations but essential to an enemy to continue to war) shall be indemnified their full value plus reasonable profit together with the freight and incidental demurrage.
If a ship arrives at a port that has been blockaded or besieged, the blockade commander will turn that ship away unless she has previously attempted to run the blockade in which case she will be confiscated.
Commanders of warships and privateers are required not to damage the property of ships. To effect this every commander will give two securities before receiving his letters of marque. All three (commander and two sureties) will be liable up to £1,500 for any damage done (£3,000 for ships with crews of 150+).
A copy of the Admiralty Judge’s decision in all cases that are judicially settled will be available to the involved commander on payment of the usual fees.
Both parties refuse to receive pirates into their ports and any goods found on pirate ships will be seized and restored to the owners as well as may be.
The enemies of either party may not recruit the nationals of either country as seamen. If a citizen of either country accepts foreign letters-of-marque the aggrieved party may prosecute him as a pirate.
The ships-of-war of each party will be received in the ports of the other. George III allows distressed American warships into those British ports where they would not ordinarily be received on condition the vessel is not allowed to break bulk or sell cargo. Privateers that are enemies of either country shall not be allowed in the ports of the other to arm or sell seized goods. Privateers of both parties may take their prizes where they like and, if into the ports of one of the parties, they will not be detained. No refuge will be granted by either party to those taking prizes from the other.
If war occurs between the parties (or either ambassador is recalled) the nationals of either, residing in the lands of the other, have 12 months to sell up and go.
The first ten articles are permanent. The others are valid for 12 years. Article 12 expires 2 years after the present war ends. Sgd Jay & Grenville, 19th Nov 1794. Ratified by Congress 24th June 1795.
Sat 13th Feb 1796
Bastia, Corsica, 18th Aug – The people of Aleria have burned a copy of the British laws bestowed on Corsica on the transfer of its sovereignty to George III. They believe we do not respect General Paoli who is their hero but a difficult man for us to deal with. Pozzi de Borgo, the President of the State Council, and Colonna, who are the main British supporters, have become popular betes noire.
The Corsicans have attacked the salt monopoly we instituted and have refused to pay our gabelle and other taxes. They complain the promised university has not progressed, trade is being interrupted and public funds are disappearing. The Viceroy (Minto) says he is a good chap and would not misrule them. An island-wide election is being held and Paoli is expected to increase his power from it.
We have invested funds in developing Ajaccio into a naval base which is our main reason for the inclusion of Corsica in the British Empire. A great mole is being laid and dockyards and arsenals are under construction.
A French commissioner has visited to propose an exchange of prisoners. Minto assented.
Sat 2nd April 1796
The Comte de Lille (one of the titles of the putative Louis XVIII) has written to the Elector of Triers from Verona on 29th June 1795. After his flight from France, the Comte was long a resident of Coblenz in the electorate:
“Uncle, I have succeeded to the throne of France. Your kindness to me will never be forgotten. As a member of the German Empire you may have difficulty responding to this letter but you can write to me as Count of Lille. I only wish to exchange compliments.”
Sat 13th Feb 1796
Louis XVIII, presently at Verona, wrote to the Pope on 24th June:
Now I am King of France, the first of my cares is to re-establish Roman Catholicism in my country. I implore your benediction.
Sat 20th Feb 1796
The self-proclaimed Louis XVIII has written to the Archbishop of Paris (presently ‘holidaying’ in Switzerland) from Verona 15th June:
I have received the letter which you and the Bishops of Langres, Nimes and St Malo sent to me. I am glad to know the faithful part of my clergy reside at Constance. I have accepted the duty to be King and hope to restore Christianity to my country. I ask you to pray to God, through whom monarchs reign, to restore my subjects to me.
Sat 20th Feb 1796
London, 16th Sept 1795 – news from the West Indies:
25,000 troops are under orders to serve in West Indies. Sir Ralph Abercromby will reside at Martinique and govern that island as well as the Windward Islands, Guadaloupe and St Lucia.
A separate and much larger force will be required to attack San Domingo to frustrate the peace treaty between Spain and France which stipulates that Spain will retain its part of that island until the French are able to resume their sovereignty of it.
It is intended that General O’Hara should command the San Domingo invasion but he remains a French prisoner and has to be exchanged first.
Sat 20th Feb 1796
Paris, July - Abbe Reynal has been quiet for many months but has just published a political tract against proscriptions and confiscations:
He thinks the proscribed nobles should be allowed back. The more enemies we have the more difficult it is for us to prevail. These enemies can readily be made into friends. The more friends we have the more quickly we can defeat our real enemies. Wealth is not acquired by confiscations. If we wish to be rich we must encourage labour and industry by protecting investments.
The true foundation of legitimate government is justice, virtue and purity of manners, he says.
Sat 20th Feb 1796
Vienna, 10th July – the Emperor’s brother, the 23 years old Archduke Alexander, was playing with fireworks. He shot a rocket at a window but it struck the frame and rebounded into the room where it set fire to other fireworks. The subsequent explosion blew out his eyes and he died the next morning.
The Archdukes Charles and Joseph are inconsolable. The Empress is deeply saddened and, as she is pregnant, there are fears for her child. Alexander was popular with the Hungarians and was shortly to have married a Russian princess.
Sat 30th Jan 1796
The India fleet, which arrived London at end July, has been ordered to discharge cargoes immediately as 12 of its ships are required by the ministry to sail to West Indies as troop transports. This fleet brought home the Dutch prizes that have been collected at St Helena - the Frocorder, Surcheance, Dortwich, Meermin, Menton, Hooghley, Amsterdam and Ziely. They collectively contain a valuable cargo of coffee, spices, Japanese copper, tea and chinaware.
Sat 27th Feb 1796
The French decree reorganising the Republican government provides for 5 Directors to run the country. The Gazette Historique has proposed the following five candidates:
Pichegru for his military victories; Barthelemy for his diplomatic skill; Villaret for his command of the navy; Cambaceres for his judicial abilities and Boisse d’Anglas for his courage in the face of traitors and assassins.
Sat 27th Feb 1796
The late treaty of peace between Spain and France appears to breach one of the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht, 1713. By that agreement the then Spanish King Charles II undertook not to sell or transfer any Spanish possessions in America to any other nation. The British Queen undertook at that time to assist Spain in restoring her American possessions to the extent they had been pre-war.
Sat 27th Feb 1796
Vienna, 29th July – The Emperor is acting against democratic infection:
Some subjects of the Austrian Emperor have been seduced by democracy. Baron de Riedel is accused of fomenting French principles in Austria. He loses his title and his lands are confiscated. He is to be exposed in the stocks for 3 days under a sign ‘the traitor of his country and seducer of the public’ and then imprisoned for 60 years in a fort.
Other democrats are being similarly punished. Count Hohenwarth got 30 years; Franzel the soapmaker got 2 years; Councillor Brandtstetter and Dr Judz are yet to be sentenced.
Sat 5th March 1796
The American ship Perseverance (Williamson) has arrived Bombay from London with grain and wine from Madeira. She stopped nowhere en route (the American captains often say that these days).
He brings London papers to Sept 1795 that say two French commissioners had then arrived in London supposedly for peace talks but no details are available. The French army over the Rhine has stopped its forward motion. It apparently crossed solely to encourage the Austrian Emperor to cease delaying the peace negotiations with the German states.
Sat 12th March 1796
National Convention, 17th Sept – The Deputies are debating French territorial acquisitions in the war. There are three possibilities - we give them back; we realign our frontier to the Meuse or we realign our frontier to the Rhine:
The 1st option might procure peace by depriving our enemies of grounds to attack us. It might become inconvenient to rule these places.
The 2nd option allows us to exploit the navigation of the Scheldt and Meuse as agreed with the Netherlands. We can justify retaining the extra land as compensation for the costs of defending ourselves.
The 3rd option is popular with those who seek for clearly defined frontiers. It would make Austrian invasions of France difficult. It might also be considered a kind of compensation for the costs we sustained in our defence. The people of the lands between the Rhine and the Meuse have expressed friendship to us. Many have repeatedly asked the National Convention to be incorporated in France. It would open the navigation of the Rhine to French traders, increase our population and domestic market very greatly and simplify our trade with the Baltic and Germany. On the other hand, it will certainly aggravate the Emperor and, by competing with or supplanting English merchants in those markets, it would deeply antagonise them too.
Returning to our ancient limits is only popular amongst those of us who have relations with Austria (who will be the principal loser if France expands). We would then forego the benefits of those great rivers and the peoples who are agreeable to union with us. We would leave Austria with a route into our heartland and a base from which to interdict our trade with central Europe. The income Austria raises from those lands would help her recover more quickly and, as a monarchy, she implacably resents our Republic.
If we fix the frontier along the Meuse we leave Austria with the lands necessary to revenge herself on us. It diminishes the possibility of permanent peace. It is also true that the Meuse is not a sufficiently large river to make a strong frontier. An Austrian army, between the Meuse and the Rhine, will be able to raise vast provisions from the country, iron in great quantities and the cloth of Limburg for uniforms. That area is rich in population, horses, mines and all sorts of things that could be mobilised against us. We were able to capture it only because the Austrian troops were so demoralised. If we were to do it again, attacking them on what they consider to be their own soil, they would have the motivation to fight better. All-in-all the Meuse is an inadequate frontier that cannot secure our liberty.
If we make the Rhine our frontier we would deeply alienate Austria. The Rhine is deep and fast-flowing. Its navigation is comparatively difficult. It is a better natural frontier that the Meuse. If an Austrian army was on the right bank of the Rhine it would have to be small as the area cannot support a greater population. They would have to bring some of their supplies in from outside at greater expense. We have for years felt the ambitions of Austria and their involvement in this war is convincing proof of it. The Emperor may have cared for Louis but he cares more for additional land - look what he has done in Poland. Such an enemy needs be kept small or he will be troublesome. He will misinterpret our kindness for weakness. We cannot afford to be generous with him. We have to consider the happiness of our own people first.
Quite apart from security concerns, there are material advantages to be had. A positive balance of trade is a source of relative power. Our trade balances have formerly been against us. Two thirds of the produce of the new lands is superfluous to the needs of the residents - it is tradable. There is also the advantage of navigation on the new rivers. We have obtained some of that by our treaty with the Netherlands but why deprive ourselves of its full extent? If we allow the barriers and inspections along the Rhine that are found wherever it enters a new fief, the myriad taxes and delays that diminish its value as a trade route will continue to slow the distribution of goods.
The great advantage of a frontier on the Rhine is its effect on British commerce. By uniting the occupied lands to us we immediately release them from the restrictions Britain puts upon their trade and they may freely export as they wish. These lands produce the same products as the English. The moderate price of their labour, the inexpensive river carriage to the sea and, under our management, the absence of all transit fees, will make their goods very competitive with English goods. If the English cannot compete on price they cannot compete at all. These countries will be allured by our arts and culture and will voluntarily chose to trade more with us, indeed they have already evinced a wish to be closer to us.
We have a valid claim for indemnity from Austria for the war. She has been predatory towards us. It would be just to demand a price for her conduct.
Our first object in obtaining peace is to establish our Republic. Our happiness and prosperity depend on it. Now we have become powerful, who is there to fear? Sooner or later our enemies will recover their strength and again indulge in their schemes. With increased territory, augmented force and greater national wealth, our security and revolution is assured.
Sat 9th April 1796
Europe news at Dec 1795:
The National Convention wound-up itself on 27th Oct and a new legislature, the Directorate, was inducted the same day. The new Directors are Reubel, Reveillere Lefaux, Carnot, P Barras and Letourneur. Their first acts will address the national financial difficulty - the Louis d’Or, which was formerly equivalent to 24 livres, is now exchanged at over 5,000 livres of assignats.
The Princess Royal (Marie Antoinette’s daughter) has been exchanged for the political French prisoners Bournonville etc., held by Austria.
Sat 9th April 1796
After the King’s Speech had been read in parliament, Lord Dalkeith said we are losing the war in Europe. In West Indies we have taken three islands and lost two (St Vincent and St Lucia). We are winning everywhere in Asia. To remedy the West Indian setbacks we were sending a great armament there. He thought it was the worst time to make peace. He said France was in a deplorable financial state and the new government was not fully accepted by the French people. He said the National Convention had used force to get its new arrangements instituted and he categorised it as a military government. The men who had led the government since Robespierre has been replaced and it was impossible to say when things would become tranquil.
Stewart seconded. He said the assignats had fallen to 1½% of face value whilst the government continued to spend 1,400 million livres a month. Unless France found some real finance very soon she would again be anarchic. On the other hand, he said British finances had seldom been so good in war. Commerce and manufacturing are strong, taxes are low and government loans are easily raised. When we can make an honourable peace we will become immensely rich.
Sheridan said the country was facing a famine. The Elector of Hanover17 has made peace with France while England continued to fight. Why don’t these two rulers change places – George III can go to Hanover and fight as long as he likes and we’ll make peace. The real war aim of George III is to place a King on the French throne, he thought.
Sheridan also said that whilst England was concentrating forces around France, we neglected the West Indies. The few announcements about West Indies from the ministry are shrouded in obscurity.
Jenkinson said the French government was more stable now than in 1793. Their constitutional ideas were altered – the former naked democracy has been amended. The French property requirement on electors in the Primary Assemblies is even higher than England’s. The political clubs are abolished. The new legislature offers better security and, if established, is more acceptable to England.
Jenkinson believed that if France was permitted to retain her present frontiers she would seriously diminish British trade. He also recalled France had naval superiority in the Mediterranean in times of peace. He concluded with ‘why make peace now when, in a few months, we will be able to dictate terms’.
Fox for the liberal opposition said the King was relying on speculative fear of anarchy and terror to maintain support for war. His ministers had added £500,000 to annual taxes to pay the interest on £100 millions of debt (the British debt due to war so far) which had caused the scarcities of the previous year. He deplored ministers overlooking this and saying instead that things are getting better. He noted the fiasco at Quiberon Bay and observed that a British officer was sent to demand the surrender of Noirmontier “in the name of Louis XVIII”. He concluded that Pitt’s assertion, war was not fought to restore the Bourbons, was laughable. He deplored the loss of 100,000 British lives in this dubious cause.
He considered the minister’s view that the French government was unlikely to meet its obligations and could not be negotiated with. He noted Denmark and Sweden had made treaties with France under the Brissotines and never had a single cause of complaint. The truces with Prussia and Spain likewise had given no grounds for complaint. Pitt was lying when he said he could not treat with France. It is England that refuses to talk peace. We appear as the war mongers of Europe. If we opened negotiations and France was unreasonable, the people would see the point that Pitt continually labours speculatively. Conceivably they might support him. When Valenciennes, Conde and Quesnoy were taken in June it was said France was on her last legs – why was not peace made then? Now she is said to be again in serious jeopardy, why do we still decline to make peace?
Insurance on shipping to the West Indies has doubled in one year. In our own islands a shortage of grain has caused famine. At a time when scarce one family in ten can afford bread, an immense quantity of provisions had been given to the émigré army on the coast of France; food that was desperately needed here. Then the émigré army was defeated and we abandoned them and all their supplies to the enemy.
Pitt categorised Fox’s speech as deserving of impeachment. Every Frenchman had been reduced to one fifteenth (±7%) of his worth three years ago. Even the French legislature (and the financiers) agreed that the safety of the Revolution depended on the assignats and the only remedy was to discontinue issuing them. Seven months ago when the circulation of assignats had equated with £13 millions (now it is £18 millions), the Marquis de Montesquieu said they could no longer be issued and proposed that 1,500 million Livres be funded as debts due from the purchasers of national estates while another 4-5 millions should have their face values reduced to 80%. What can one think of a country where such a remedy can be proposed, asked Pitt. This had been followed by another plan to withdraw the assignats and replace them with a coinage, doubtless at a value less than real.
These French difficulties reveal that any victories in war will be short-lived. Already we hear than some civil administrators are forced to receive some taxes in produce. The armies have recently received a payment in money equal to one seventh of their salaries. The officers complained that this made their soldiers richer than they were themselves. Pitt is convinced that France needs peace more than England does.
As regards a genuine wish for peace, France had endeavoured to have America declare war on us; they had taken liberties with Sweden and Denmark which those countries had overlooked. They had interfered in the Republic of Geneva. The Prussian peace treaty had been broken but the Prussians were too exhausted to complain. The decision of the Elector of little Hanover to make peace hardly provided an example to a great Power like Britain. There is no reason to suppose that the policies of the two countries should be the same. If we were obliged to make peace with Hanover, we would also be liable to make war with her. That is not an argument that finds favour in a British administration.
Sat 14th May 1796
The House of Commons, 10th Nov:
The army estimates for the next year total £5 millions. General McLeod called for supportings to evidence the state of national defence. He deplored the passing-over of experienced officers for younger ones. He called for returns from each branch of the army – artillery, cavalry, infantry etc and the militias and yeomanry.
Windham said he had nothing to hide but feared publication in the House would be useful to an enemy. The state of the national army had been dramatically changed in Sept 1794 by the improvements made to it by the Duke of York. As regards the citizen army there were as yet no regular returns of yeomanry for government to accurately estimate their numbers.
McLeod said he would accept figures from August 1794 prior to the Duke’s re-arrangements and if the government had no figures for enrolment in the militias etc., at least they knew the demand for arms for each yeoman from which an estimate of numbers could be produced.
General Tarleton was pleased the government was willing to release the information. General Smith said he saw no disadvantage in publishing the size of our army as it might act to deter enemies from continuing to war with us. He noted, in respect of the militias, that the Ordnance Office supplied most of the yeomen but others found their own arms and some were provided by county subscription.
Eventually, the estimates were moved and accepted.
General McLeod then called for details of all the field officers attached to Moira’s Brittany invasion force, showing their rank and emoluments, and all the officers seconded to serve under the Comte d’Artois and Prince of Conde. Agreed.
Sat 14th May 1796
The Secretary at War said his Estimates included HM regiments serving with the Company’s army in India although they were not paid by the Crown and should not be included. He also knew the numbers of several garrisons in our newly acquired colonies were not included in the figures.
The numbers he had were
|
for guards and garrisons |
49,819 men |
|
in colonies/plantations |
77,858 men |
The figure for guards etc had reduced by 119,000 due to our withdrawal from the low countries and 40,000 of them had been redeployed in the colonies. Overall there was a decrease of 28,000 men.
The militia totalled 42,000 men and the fencibles 13,000 men. The cavalry had increased to near 10,000 men. The overall total of all forces available to fight for the country was 207,000 men.
General FitzPatrick asked about the mutinies that had occurred when drafting new regiments. The mutineers said the government had broken faith with them. He mentioned a letter from Colonel Hay of the 109th regiment which expressly said the government had not complied with its own conditions for drafting regiments.
The Secretary at War knew nothing of the case. He said many recruits are the lowest of men and whatever agreements they made were not the responsibility of government. Pitt said the government had wished to draft more regiments but as soon as it found it could not be done without violating the conditions on which they were raised, it abandoned the wish.
General McLeod mentioned a cavalry regiment which had been formed then dismounted and its horses, which cost £25 each on formation, were sold off for £8. Jenkinson said it was impossible to answer every case adduced in the House but thought it probable that a large number of horses coming on the market may have depressed prices. General McLeod mentioned the fencible cavalry which he described as useless and had been raised merely as an exercise of patronage. The Secretary at War said the fencible cavalry was a temporary force that received no half-pay and was comprised of young men working part-time. They were useful considering how cheap they were.
General Tarleton said he had seen something of the fencible cavalry and they were useless. General Smith said, as the regular cavalry was now coming home from the low countries, there was no justification for an amateur cavalry.
General McLeod supposed the fencible cavalry were for crowd-control as the ministry was driving the population to desperation and needed some force to oppose them.
Lord John Russell mentioned a troop of 30 fencible cavalry coming to Oldham recently, each armed with 12 ball cartridges. They had drawn-up in front of the Town Hall where the magistrates and all the people were in fear of them. The cavalry officer said they were come at the order of the War Office to quell a riot of which no-one else was aware.
Sat 9th April 1796
Another packet of dispatches and letters has arrived Bombay from Basra:
The Austrians successfully crossed the Rhine and defeated Pichegru before taking winter quarters on the west bank. An armistice of three months has been agreed.
Sat 9th April 1796
Letter from Basel, 29th Dec 1795:
The exchange of the French Princess Royal for the political prisoners was agreed two months ago but was delayed by France. The Princess eventually left Paris on the evening of 19th December. The escort was instructed to only pass through towns at night. In the evening of 23rd the Princess reached Huninguen and a courier was sent to Fribourg to get the French prisoners. They were sent to Richen and the Council of Basel undertook not to release them until the Princess was safely received. The Princess was delivered to the home of Reber a citizen of Basel where the Prince of Gavres was waiting to receive her.
The 20 French prisoners exchanged were Bournonville the war minister, Menat his adjutant, Vriemeer his secretary, Camas, Bancal, Lamarque and Quinette the National Deputies, Semonville the ambassador to Constantinople, Merget his secretary, Marat the ambassador to Naples, Dronet deputy to the Convention and eight servants.
Sat 16th April 1796
The House of Commons, 9th Dec:
Another message from the King has been read in the House. He seems willing to consider peace with France.18
Sheridan expressed astonishment. Recently the King and his minister insisted France could not be trusted; now it seems she can. In the week between the two speeches a huge loan has been raised and the country had been committed to spent £2 millions in annual interest payments on it.
The major crowns of Europe decided to interfere in France and restore the ancient despotism and this inflamed the French to threaten the spread of their ideology. Now after considerable sacrifice, peace was again possible. He called for the resignation of the ministry.
Grey added that the only material difference in France now and France then was the establishment of a Council of Ancients along the lines of our own House of Lords. The war so far had cost £50 millions and had added £80 millions to the national debt. Now we agreed to treat because there was a Council of Ancients.
Pitt replied that the French government now was not asserting Jacobin principles; it was not unlike our own. It is no longer founded on the Rights of Man which theoretical beauty had been found academic and impractical.
Sat 23rd April 1796
The French Revolution really is completed. The deputies are discussing a new woollen uniform for themselves so the public can distinguish them and hopefully not murder them by mistake.
The Council of 500 will have a long white robe with blue girdle, a scarlet cloak and a cap of blue velvet.
The Council of Ancients will wear a long violet robe with scarlet girdle, a white cloak and violet cap.
The Executive Directory has two uniforms, one for everyday and the other for special occasions. The everyday wear is a cloak with back and sleeves in bright orange lined with white and gold embroidery front and back; a long white waistcoat embroidered with gold; a white silk scarf edged with gold and black silk breeches. There is a black round hat turned up at one side with tricolor feathers. The sword is worn on an orange shoulder belt pendant to the waist.
The evening dress is a blue cloak with a scarlet cloak over it.
Sat 30th April 1796
Paris, 12th Dec 1795 – Report of Finance Minister Faipoul to the Directorate:
The War Minister has told you of the desperate need of the army for funds. I proposed to solve the difficulty using those Spanish Bills of Exchange in the National Treasury, a part of which will be sold immediately to provide for the armies of the North, the Meuse, Rhine and Sambre.
Unfortunately the exchange rate for Louis D’Or today is poor. At close of business, with no takers for the Bills, I ordered the ministry staff to contact the capitalists of Paris for a loan of 600,000 livres. We expect they will agree.
We are also examining the advantages of exchanging the Spanish Bills for others which may be more profitable. I have to tell you I cannot create an abundance of funds from our present exhausted resources. If the army, the navy and the Interior Department require millions in specie or greater sums in assignats, I see no way to satisfy them.
Relying on my private connections I have already obtained loans from several foreign towns but these monies will not arrive for a fortnight and in any event they are quite inadequate to our overall needs.
Our difficulty stems from the assignats. The Exchange knows we have built a new paper mill to manufacture more of them. The gain on sale of new assignats is reversed by the decline in overall assignat value whenever we issue more.
At present the debts of the nation total 72 million livres in specie and we have no means in prospect to discharge them. Magen’s Bills on Spain will take time to be negotiated. The daily production of 100 million in assignats has been adequate for about one third of our daily needs. The 1,500 millions of assignats that are to be paid during this next ten days will make little difference.
The Council of Ancients debated Faipoul’s report on 20th Dec:
Dupont de Nemours said the revenue of our nation arises from tax payments. In 1790 the nett national revenue from all sources was 1,500 million livres. On the expectation of this income the taxes were fixed at 300 millions and the surplus was to come from agriculture, industry and the profits of merchants.
Since 1790 war has diminished the harvest 20%. The costs of agriculture have increased. I wonder how the nation can bear the loan of 600 millions that we now urgently require. We do not have 600 millions in specie in France. The market value of all the assignats does not approach this figure. Pitt can raise loans of this size with the backing of the London merchants but he raises it in tranches, paying it down year by year. Dupont de Nemours concluded by opining that the maximum France might raise in her current circumstances was not more than 100 million livres.
Verrier disagreed. He noted the loan did not oppress the poor but was to be taxed-off the rich who had most to gain from French success. There was some injustice in forcing the loan on them but they should also make some sacrifice for the country. The injustice was temporary and would cease once the loan was repaid. He noted the Finance Ministry allowed the loan to be paid in specie, silver-plate or grain and it would immediately be released back into the economy in settlement of government debt. He thought a true patriot would willingly give up his plate and eat with wooden spoons.
Coren Fustier wondered who would pay the loan. He thought the rich had been exhausted by taxes and persecution while the ordinary citizens were even poorer. The merchants had no trade, the artisans had no work, the gold and jewels of the country had all been removed or been buried and become undiscoverable.
Thomas Lindet was against the loan. He recalled Pitt had said the country with the deepest pockets would win the war.19 If we raise a loan in our present state it will likely bring about our national bankruptcy. We have no alternative but to keep issuing assignats.
The Council of 500 then voted and the loan was approved. It was resolved that a fund will be collected from 25% of the taxpaying citizens of every department. The departmental administrators will each identify their biggest tax payers up to 25% of the roll. They are not limited to existing tax payers but may make enquiries about rich people who do not pay tax and apply the loan on them. The lenders will be classified in 16 classes. The first 15 classes will pay 50 – 1,200 livres each depending on which class they are in. The 16th class will be composed of people with capital of 500,000 livres or more, as indicated in the survey of 1790, and they will pay 1,500 – 6,000 livres each. The payments will be received in gold or silver or specie. If these metals are unavailable to the investor, he may pay in grain which will be stored in one or other of the national granaries for the country’s use. Assignats may also be used and will be accounted at 100% of their market value.
It was agreed to order imprisonment for anyone declining to pay.
A member of the 500 criticised the jobbers and moneymen. He thought they particularly deserved to contribute. It was agreed to use pressure on those who were reluctant to support the nation.
Sat 7th May 1796
State of the Royal Navy:
Exclusive of the chartered armed ships protecting British coasting trade, the Navy has in commission 120 ships-of-the-line, 23 x 50-gunners, 159 frigates and 164 sloops for a total of 466 warships. Of this number, 7 capital ships, 1 x 50-gunner, 5 frigates and 6 sloops are serving in Asia, about the same as at Jamaica and rather less than we have at Halifax or in the West Indies. The main concentration of British naval force is in the English and Irish Channels and the North Sea (127 warships). 8 capital ships and 2 sloops are under construction.
Sat 7th May 1796
The Hague, 7th Oct 1795:
The provisional representatives of the Dutch people have published a copy letter they have received from F Frederici, the Governor of Surinam. Frederici has received a letter from the Stadtholder dated at Kew 7th Feb 1795 which orders him to admit British warships and troops at all his ports and rivers and consider them as belonging to a friendly Power who will prevent Surinam falling into French hands.
We representatives have not yet acted on Frederici’s information as we heard the Stadtholder was trying to assemble a force for the invasion of Netherlands and we expected to provide all the details of his offences to you when you requested information about the invasion. His invasion is delayed and we cannot withhold this information any longer.
William V (the Stadtholder) has been a traitor since 1780. He opposed the States General during and after the war with England. Later his conspiracies to deny our liberty were exposed and he had to leave the Hague. He returned with a foreign army which reduced this country and looted and assassinated our people. This act ruined and banished thousands of Dutch families. On 11th Sept 1787 he published a wicked Manifesto and established a dreadful government calling it a Constitutional measure. It was dominated by his faction and remained in control for 7 years.
He fought the most ruinous war we have ever been involved in which cost millions of public money and rivers of Dutch blood. He brought the country to disaster, especially from the roving bands of British troops, and brought confusion to every branch of the administration. Then when the French entered our country, he shamefully saved himself and his family and wrote that infamous letter “that the good inhabitants of his lands desired peace and he would not obstruct their wishes but go on tour for a while, praying that Heaven would shower its blessing upon his people; that his two sons had relinquished their commands of the Dutch armies and were leaving with him”.
In this way William V has displayed his traitorous submission to England. This latest crime to procure the traitorous act of the Governor of Surinam is High Treason against the Dutch Republic. Now our abolition of the Stadtholderate is shown to have been a manifestly wise act. We hope all the people will see the light of truth.
After you Deputies of France have seen this please return the letter etc to Bavius Voorda and Jan Valkenaar, professors of law at Leyden who will draw-up the indictment against the ex-Stadtholder.20
Sat 28th May 1796
Europe news – The Diet at Ratisbon has agreed to empower the Emperor to make peace on behalf of the German states. On 25th July 1795 the Emperor asked the Danish ambassador at Vienna, M St Saphoren, to mediate. The Danish court agreed and Count de Bernstorff, the Danish minister, asked the National Convention on 18th Aug to respond. The Emperor proposes Augsburg as the venue and he guaranteed security there. He asks that the inhabitants of the occupied countries be relieved of military requisitions during the negotiations.
The CPS has directed the National Convention on 13th Oct not to consent to truce until peace is declared by the Emperor. The National Convention may thereafter appoint members to a Congress.
Sat 28th May 1796
British army HQ, Jamaica 13th Aug Proclamation:
The maroon negroes are in rebellion. They are based at Trelawney Town. Every maroon negro delivered dead or alive to British forces will earn the captor £20. Women and children are worth £10 each.
James Palmer and Leonard Parkinson are the leaders of the maroon negroes., Palmer is worth £100 dead or alive, Parkinson is worth £50.
Sgd on behalf of Maj General Balcarras.
Sat 28th May 1796
The Defensive Alliance between Russia and Britain has been agreed at Petersburg on Feb 1795. Sir Charles Whitworth is Plenipotentiary for England. The Empress appointed Sir John, Count Osterman, as her Plenipotentiary:
This treaty excludes Asian wars unless Asian possessions of either party are involved in a European war. We will be good friends. If either is attacked by land or sea, the other will help.
Russia has a huge army; Britain has a huge navy. If Britain is attacked the Empress will send 10,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry; If Russia is attacked King George will send 12 ships of war (2 ships-of-the-line 74 guns, 6 x 60-guns, 4 x 50-guns) making totally 708 cannon and 4,560 men.
Russian troops will not be required to fight in Spain, Portugal or Italy or outside Europe. Either party may exchange its commitment for cash. Either can discharge its treaty obligations by payment of 500,000 roubles per annum to the other so long as hostilities last. If either helping party is itself attacked, it may avoid its commitment. The extent of help to be provided may be increased by agreement.
The Russian troops shall be fully equipped with artillery and ammunition and be paid and fed by Britain.
The British government will use its best endeavours to get free passage through Europe for the Empress’ troops. If Russian troops have to cross the sea, the British government will provide ships. The force to be provided will come under the command of the recipient’s CiC but its native commander may attend all Councils of War. The commanders will have free correspondence with their home governments. Each contingent will be disciplined under its own national code. The British squadron will be welcomed at any Russian port and may return to home port once a year. It will return to the Baltic in May and remain there until October.
Neither party may make peace or truce without involving the other. Other Powers may join this alliance with the agreement of both principal Powers. Commerce will be stimulated to strengthen friendship. The treaty will remain in force for 8 years and may be renewed.
Sat 4th June 1796
Following the assimilation of the Indian and British armies, a long list of brevet promotions for senior Indian officers is published.
The India Company’s aide-de-camp to King George is shown in this list. He is Lt Col Colebrooke Nesbitt of the 52nd foot.
Sat 4th June 1796
On 21st July 1795 the New York Chamber of Commerce Journal opined on Jay’s recent treaty with England:
Some people are lobbying Congress to not ratify the agreement. We resolve that the treaty contains as many solutions to our mutual disagreements as might be expected. Our formerly precarious privileges are converted into permanent rights. The surrender of the western forts and the adjustment of British debts are fair compensation for our past and future commercial losses.
If this treaty is not ratified we expect our shipping all round the world will be intercepted and impounded. Our insurers will be injured, our trade diminished, our productions made less valuable, our farmers and artisans will be under-employed, our national revenue will decrease, our national debt increase and our hopes for prosperity frustrated. This treaty is not perfect but it is progressive. C Sands, President.
The merchants of Boston at a meeting on 13th July contrarily found the Treaty ‘highly injurious’ to trade:
It does not address all American complaints but it does resolve all British complaints. The surrender of the western forts should include compensation for our consequent commercial losses. We have been kept out of this area for 12 years in violation of the peace treaty guaranteeing our independence. No restitution has yet been made for American property taken at the close of the last war although required under the treaty.
The legality of capture of American ships and cargoes is to be determined by British Admiralty Courts without American congressional oversight. Legal solutions are slow and cause additional loss. We want the summary method of settling claims that is allowed for British ships.
The new treaty gives British traders equal rights with us in the trade with American Indians. The Alien Duty on British goods brought to America in British ships should be cancelled or at least never increased. Our growing commerce with India is to be restricted and will not develop as expected. The British reserve a right to charge duty on American ships entering British ports to equate the cost of exports with the cost of European and Asian goods imported to America by British ships and merchants – thus our merchants must compete in our home market on the same terms as British merchants.
It concedes a right of British warships to search and detain our ships in war. It makes timber, hemp, sails and copper sheet (ship-building materials) contraband, whilst we have expressly made these free goods in other treaties. This treaty surrenders the benefits of trade from our neutrality. It allows Britain to buy all our goods (at a reasonable profit) while limiting our ability to sell in other markets. It thus limits the Power of Congress to regulate American commerce. It comprises a precedent for all other nations to treat us similarly. The opinion of Bostonians is that American produce is in wide demand and can readily be sold for all we want to import thus establishing reciprocity in our international trade.
Sgd by the Select Men of Boston - William Boardman, Thomas Crofts, Thomas Edwards, William Little, Azekiel Price, Jesse Putnam, Thomas Walley, William Scollay and Ebenezer Seaver
President Washington replied 28th July:
The Constitution allows me to make treaties. The terms of this treaty have been carefully considered by Congress and myself. I have to consider the interests of the entire United States and not just one place in them. It will be OK.
Sat 11th June 1796
Merlin de Douai of the CPS has explained the events of 3rd – 5th Oct 1795 in Paris to the National Convention. The cause of the riots is not stated in the account but their course and conclusion is elucidated.
Sat 8th Oct 1796
The House of Commons debated the Army estimates on 2nd Dec 1795:
60 MPs (9% of the membership) turned-up for this debate. General Smith said a large estimate is produced for this year but the savings from the 1794 and 1795 votes totalled £750,000 which suggests the 1796 estimate is probably too large as well. He doubted the usefulness of the 10,000-strong fencible cavalry now the regular troops have come home. Unmilitary men have been placed in command of large militia units whilst many trained and experienced officers were passed over. The estimates contain no return for the Irish Brigade – they are on public money and should be included. The émigré battalions should no longer be paid by Britain as there is no continental theatre of war to send them to.
Windham, Secretary at War, said there was a shortage of infantry to which the fencible cavalry could be applied. He said the nature of the fencible and militia armies was such as to not attract regular officers as no bounty was paid, the recruits were not entitled to half-pay and their employment ended with the war. It was preferable to employ rich landowners in their own counties to command the fencibles as they could easily produce the manpower from their estates. The details of the 5 regiments comprising the Irish Brigade were still awaited from Dublin but those troops were to be paid by England. The foreign mercenaries in British service were raised by Duke of York in Germany and had served well in the war. They were hurriedly raised to deal with the exigency of the moment and no record of them had been kept. Instead the ministry sent a man to Germany to check everything was in order and he is an honest and diligent man. The émigré army was very effective and had been most useful in West Indies. And he assured the House that all the troops being paid for were high quality troops.
General MacLeod noted that bounties of £5 - 10 were indeed paid for fencible troops; that the command of marching regiments had been given to Members of this House who had no prior experience. The force of the country is comprised a motley collection of fencibles, volunteers, independents, émigrés and others. He particularly referred to Col Beaumont’s regiment which horses had been bought at £25 each and sold for as little as £8. Beaumont has received nothing back for his payment. Some volunteer regiments only assembled on certain days of the week. One noble Lord with no military experience has two regiments of fencibles and one marching regiment under his command. It appeared to MacLeod that the entire civil defence was a piece of patronage.
The average cost to the nation of each civil defence man was £66. When drafting the fencible regiments, the government had guaranteed every officer two year’s pay. He would average the half-pay over ten year’s purchase. On this basis, each regiment would cost £33,490 (2 years pay for officers + half-pay). It would be better to grant the old bounties than pay this excessive sum. He detected a massive amount of fraud in military payments. The practice of dragooning (settling soldiers on private families to care for them) followed in this country was oppressive. The country is at risk of famine and the minister’s policies risk civil war.
General Tarleton deplored the small turn-out in the House. He noted that at no former time of rebellion had the nation’s cavalry been so extensive. He thought so many men and horses would eat a large amount of grain and fodder at a time of national famine. He knew the annual cost of the fencible cavalry was £700,000 exclusive of the costs of the innkeepers in boarding and lodging them. He examined the estimates and ‘extraordinaries’ of the last three years and found the fencibles etc had cost the country £13 millions.
Tarleton then considered that the Ministry had been very successful in raising funds to fight the war but all their chosen projects had failed. The delayed departure of the West Indian fleet had permitted men to die in the transports. Every military man would agree the West Indian force should have been sent in three divisions but the early parts were detained until the later parts were ready and this had caused egregious hardship to the troops.
On the European continent our military exploits gave no cause for rejoice. The only glaring statistic was the exceptional number of dead and injured. The recent success of the Austrians should not be thought indicative of further success. The conquest of Brabant and the Low Countries was not in prospect. The recovery of the Netherlands would more likely be achieved by negotiation than battle. The French army appeared superior to the Austrian and France was defended at that part of her frontier by a triple row of fortresses.
He thought the expedition to Quiberon Bay had been a farce. The minister gave command of the émigré army to Puisaye although men of acknowledged military ability were available. At that time a considerable body of British troops under Moira might have been committed in the same campaign and, if failure still occurred, the increased fleet of transports used would have provided a means of getting the émigrés out when things went wrong. He thought there was no real prospect of a successful allied campaign on French soil. He reviewed the calamity that befell the émigrés.
He next considered the expedition to Ile d’Yeu. Those troops might better have been deployed in Santo Domingo. The fleet might have been more usefully deployed if it had been based at Gibraltar to protect the Mediterranean. The nation and commercial insurers have both suffered unnecessary loss.
Col Grosvenor commended the émigré forces on the Waal and the Rhine and their skilled leadership by Sombreuil.
Sergeant defended the Master-General of Ordnance (provision of whose supplies had delayed the West Indian expedition) and noted he was the first Master-General to establish a proper depot of stores at Portsmouth.
Tarleton insisted the delay in sending the West Indian expedition could have been avoided and someone was responsible for it.
Lord Belgrave defended the ministry. A storm had delayed departure for many days, he recalled. The Quiberon Bay expedition was a project of the émigrés themselves and their repeated importuning of the ministry was eventually heard. Ministers were equally appalled at the results as at the expense of war. They wished to reduce annual expenditure from £11 millions to £2 millions (the cost of the peacetime establishment).
Dundas defended the ministry - ‘we feel the cries of the widows and orphans,’ he said. The West Indian expedition had not been delayed, it just took time to prepare. It depended on troops returning from the continent who had to be re-equipped and rested first. Finally all was ready on 10th Oct and the troops were embarked but the weather turned nasty. We had to wait a long time for a favourable wind. Tarleton says the West Indian force should have been divided but all the Generals to whom Dundas spoke said it should not. It was intended to shock and awe the French not just to reinforce the island garrisons. Now the fleet had been re-equipped and refitted and we are ready to try again.
Grey accused Dundas of pomposity. Everyone knew there had been an unnecessary and criminal delay. The fall of Guadaloupe was known in London in June 1794 and the preparations to reinforce our possessions in West Indies should have commenced on that date - why had it taken 18 months? It is common knowledge that the fleet had to depart in September to avoid the heavy winter weather but it had still not been completely ready on 1st Nov. If Dundas wants to make an Act of God responsible for the failure he had better explain the delay clearly. Grey also disputed the ministry’s position that it was the émigrés who insisted on the Quiberon Bay expedition. He saw no evidence of that.
He had made a quick review of the estimates and the most impressive thing in them was the colossal expense of the staff. In 1762 (during the Seven Years War), Lord Chatham had raised 67,000 Guards and Garrisons and the relevant staff cost was £58,813. In 1781 (American War) 39,066 Guards and Garrisons were raised and attendant staff expenses were £42,000. In 1788 the figures were 49,419 and £43,000. Now in 1795 Guards and Garrisons number 49,219 and staff costs are £103,640. The staff have an equal number of men to discipline as in 1788 but their cost has doubled. Explain that!
Dundas only addressed the subject of delay. If Guadaloupe was the sole island to be lost we would have sent a reinforcement earlier but then St Lucia had also fallen and we only learned of it in July 1795. In the circumstances the ministry had acted quickly.
Fox supposed that Dundas was talking nonsense. The purpose of the expedition was to reduce Santo Domingo. One of the great calamities of this war has been the furtive way that Ministers concealed their purposes. He expected an enquiry into what had gone wrong at Quiberon Bay so the World would know England had not simply sacrificed thousands of émigrés to the Republic. The first expedition to the French coast had been poorly planned. The second expedition revealed the lessons of the first had not been understood and the men responsible were still there and unable to be of any use in the overall struggle.
He noted the popular wish for peace. He considered, had the émigrés been successful at Quiberon Bay and a footing in France obtained, they would have declared Louis XVIII King and the chance of peace would have faded away. Fox thought no peace with France was in prospect whilst we maintained our war aim of restoring monarchy.
Concerning expenses, Fox recalled Windham had repeatedly criticised the ministry of overspending in the American War. Now expenses were out of control. He wondered why the fencible cavalry was so disproportionately large in comparison to the fencible infantry. He asked the MPs to reflect why that should be so.21 As there is no prospect of imminent invasion the fencibles must be there to prevent civil disorder – it can only be one or the other. The creation of a standing army to secure the internal peace of the country was something England had repudiated long ago. He concluded that the fencible cavalry was nothing to do with the war and everything to do with control of the populace and it would have to be continued until ministers regained the confidence of the people.
Fox reviewed the supposed reasons for starting and continuing the war. He found them whimsical and fanciful. The opinion throughout Europe is that England is odious for obstinately continuing war. Every merchant who received correspondence from abroad knew the truth of the case. A general peace would have occurred a year ago had England not objected to it. The King’s minister liked to war.
Dundas merely replied that he had not mentioned the force for Santo Domingo.
Pitt said the war was caused by the aggression of France. We were forced to fight to preserve our religion and government and ‘everything that was near and dear to us.’ We fought to secure the fundamental principles of all government and the continuance of the Constitutional monarchy we have. We are fighting a defensive war for our existence. It is the efforts of this little island that will rescue all the nations of Europe by destroying the unnatural system of equality that France professes. Now the French government is stable and it is possible for us to negotiate with it, we encounter French pride. What have our former allies gained by making peace - are they more secure? What of those German states that are now part of France. None of those occupied lands are exempt from paying French contributions. It is tyranny. It is true that France agrees to reimburse them, presumably from other states once France has conquered them. Are we to recognise a French frontier on the Rhine?
Our inveterate enemy has grown larger and richer and we are supposed to make peace? Our system is a costly system. I regret the expense of war but our own security and existence is at stake. We have destroyed the Jacobin system; all Europe remains independent; our prosperity is increasing; the interests of commerce are being served and French ambitions are contained.
As regards Quiberon Bay, government was persuaded that the expedition would receive co-operation in La Vendee, a spirit of latent loyalty would be expressed there and its flame would spread throughout France. Pitt remained satisfied that the expedition had been a reasonable gamble. He welcomed an enquiry but regrettably could not permit one as it was all secret.
As regards the increased staff cost, he thought this was likely attributable to the increased militia, fencible army and yeomanry. These all needed more supervision than regular troops.
General Smith said he had examined the estimates to the best of his ability. He was aware that England was execrated throughout Europe, that we are accused of using the war to monopolise trade and obtain a comparative national advantage.22 He did not object to the intention to continue war but its performance was likely to make gold too expensive. He agreed that French conquests would have to be returned as the basis to any workable peace.
The estimates were then voted 80/16 and approved.
Sat 22nd Oct 1796
The House of Commons, 8th April – General Smith resumed his objections to the army estimates and moved an investigation. The cost of maintaining barracks throughout the country is £1.4 millions and another £300,000 is earmarked. There is a General with 19 officers under him and 46 Barrack Masters who administer this fund. Many of the staff were appointed before any new barracks had been built. There is a chap in Lincoln who has been paid as barrack-master for two years and, now it is decided not to build one there, he has claimed distress and been given a job in the Post Office. Ministers have once again spent the money before coming here to ask for it. Their application for construction of inland forts was rejected and now they build first and ask for the money afterwards. The expenses of this war are double those of the American War. Pitt always criticised Lord North for the American expenses, now we find he is even worse.
Pitt has completed barracks for 34,000 troops, 14,000 more than our customary peacetime establishment. Are we to have a standing army in this country again? It seems the real enemy of the ministry is the British people. Pitt is using money voted for one thing and applying it to something else. Where are the old Constitutional controls? Pitt and George III have united and can do anything.
The Secretary at War (Windham) replied that barrack building commenced in 1790 and in 1792 the House had debated it, after a question from M A Taylor, and the building programme was permitted (as it was not disallowed). The old barracks were built for infantry and were in unsuitable locations. The new barracks are to relieve the innkeepers who have the fencibles billeted on them and who are increasingly closing their inns and assuming other occupations.
An important consideration in deciding to build these new barracks was to protect the troops from the conversation they hear in the inns. Guests talk about democracy and incite rebellion and, in any event, it is undesirable that troops should pass their whole days in public houses.
M A Taylor said the objectionable part of the programme was not the barracks per se but the system of building them near every city throughout the country.
Fox deplored the rationale (to withhold popular opinion from the troops). It is as though the minister wishes to make one party deaf because he has so far failed to make the other party dumb. Is the minister’s fear of democratic infection in the ranks due to the country’s employment of foreigners in the army, he wondered? Fox thought Windham’s contempt for the Law of Nations (the interference in France) was being extended to contempt for the Law of England which required that expenditure must be sanctioned by parliament. If the ministry wished to protect the Constitution it should lead by example.
Pitt recalled that the House had disapproved of soldiers being billeted on public houses but now he provided an alternative it was again disapproved. The House divided and Smith’s motion to investigate was defeated 98/24.
Sat 18th June 1796
News from the London papers:
French poverty is allowing the Austrians to assert themselves. They have pushed the French army back across the Rhine and have occupied Mainz. There are 40,000 Austrian troops in Westphalia to assist the Stadtholder’s supporters in Netherlands. The Armee de la Vendee is said to be 80,000 strong and controls the country from Brest to Orleans.
France has two ships-of-the-line and four frigates at Smyrna.
The Pope has been threatened with assassination in St Peter’s – there are thousands of assassinations in the Papal States each year. He has permitted the British to ship three battalions of troops through his straits to Corsica.
Hamilton, the British resident at Naples, has sent an account to the Royal Society detailing the eruptions of Vesuvius since olden days.
Sat 9th July 1796
La Journal Generale, 11th Jan 1796.
The French diplomats and Deputies who were exchanged for Louis XVI’s daughter have arrived at the National Convention. Camus has reported on their treatment while captive. From 30th March – 29th May 1793 they were in Maastricht. In June and July they were repeatedly moved through a confusing number of places until they arrived at Fribourg.
Camus identified the victory at Jemappe as the cause of Dumourier’s treason. The General ascribed that victory to his own brilliance. It put Belgium at his mercy but the Belgians did not welcome him so he redirected his efforts against the Dutch. He told Camus “I am accused of being Caesar”. Camus said “In that case I will be Brutus“ and aimed a pistol at him. Dumourier planned to sell Belgium to the Austrians, to abandon the national volunteers in his army and to divide the National Convention by complaints. The Commissioners ordered him to Lille but he refused to go. To deal with this the War Minister Bournonville and four Commissioners went to Lille where Miranda denounced Dumourier to them. Camus mentions when Dumourier captured the Austrian Viceroy of Belgium he seized a chest of gold medals as well. They were supposed to go to the National Treasury but now Camus is at liberty he had checked and they were never received.
As Bournonville’s parliamentary delegation set out for Dumourier’s camp they were surrounded by Berchiny’s hussars whom Dumourier had sent ‘as an escort’. On arrival Dumourier asked if they have come to arrest him. They said they had come to appraise him of the National Convention’s wish he attend at the legislative chamber. He refused to go, declaimed against Marat and the Jacobins, and ignored the minister and deputies. The deputies tutored Dumourier on his duties and recalled the example of La Fayette. Dumourier said France faced ruin and only he could save it. Eventually the deputies decided they could make no headway and drafted an order of suspension on Dumourier which appointed Valence to succeed him. Dumourier gathered a group of officers around him. He (and they) refused to be suspended. Dumourier says his presence in Belgium is necessary for the army – he cannot leave. He ordered the deputies arrested.
The deputies supposed the army would desert Dumourier, as they had La Fayette, as soon as the situation became known. However, the deputies were ordered to leave camp. Dumourier instructed his hussars (an escort of about 25 men) to use force if we were unco-operative. Our suite did not abandon us and the whole party then set off. Bournonville attacked the escort single-handedly but was stabbed in the thigh and forced to desist. We arrived at Tournay and Berchiny’s hussars handed us over to La Tour’s Austrian dragoons. The treason was accomplished.
We were introduced to Clairfait, then moved to Mons where we were told we were hostages for the safety of the French Queen – if she died, so would we. We were moved to Brussels where the priests and émigrés abused us. We were sent to Maastricht from whence we sent a Protest to the Emperor (unanswered).
Continued in the next edition …
Drouet, the man who stopped Louis XVI at Varennes, was one of the prisoners. He had been appointed national representative to Mauberge. The town was surrounded by the enemy and no cry for help could get out. Drouet took a small number of cavalrymen and tried to pass through to Paris and alert the National Convention. He was captured, chained and put on display before the Austrian army. He was then taken to General Collerado who said that French promises are worthless - Collerado had released the garrison of Mayence on usual terms (stipulating not to serve against the allies again) but soon after those same soldiers were sent to confront the Émigré army in la Vendee. Collerado sent Drouet to General Latour who was angry and sent him to Brussels to be imprisoned. Drouet remained there while the war turned in France’s favour and the allies were pushed back. Only then was he given proper treatment and transferred to Spielberg. The only route of escape from Spielberg Castle was down a precipitous slope to the river. Drouet made a parachute and jumped. He fell onto a terrace and broke his leg. The sentry saw him and took him back into custody. He was walking on crutches for three months.
Sat 9th July 1796
The House of Commons debated peace on 15th Feb:
Grey proposed the country make peace with France. The internal state of France is now tranquil, which was Pitt’s condition for negotiations. The King said in his recent message that he would welcome any pacific disposition on the part of France. When the King states that he is not hostile to the new social order in France and does not consider it dangerous to the neighbours, it is time for peace and Grey was only surprised that the Minister had done nothing to promote it. It is now two months since France met our conditions and nothing has happened. Instead, Pitt is raising the funds for another campaign.
He thought the entire war was mistaken and the House should have followed Fox’s advice before it commenced. We joined this war without considering the consequences and, now our allies are all following their self-interest, we are in a predicament. Peace had been proposed at the end of the first season when we were still successful. Those conquests gave us an overwhelming negotiating position and might have secured the sort of peace we want but we were after more. Then fortune turned against us. Holland (on the preservation of which depended the safety of England, so it was said) was lost.23 Some of our erstwhile allies abandoned the struggle.
At the beginning of 1795 he had again moved the House for peace and been defeated. We continued to war while Spain and Prussia made peace. All the German states (including Hanover) voted for peace. Grey had then again moved the House for peace in a way he thought should be acceptable to Pitt but the minister said there was no institution in France to negotiate with. This objection, if sustainable, was nullified by the establishment of good government in France but still Pitt persevered in fighting and defied those states that made peace. England was now the leading, almost the only, light in the cause of war (excluding the Pope and the dispossessed Bourbons).
HM’s speech allowed an expectation of peace and he (Grey) was disappointed. He asked if ministers had at that time considered the possibility of peace. Had they categorised the then demands of France as extravagant or derogatory of British honour. On the contrary ministers are working endlessly to perfect formidable preparations for more war – doubling their stakes to recoup their losses.
He had given notice of his motion for peace and few of the ministers had come to the House to consider it – it showed their disinterest. France has not repeated any of those acts that were obnoxious to us. They had now established a firm Republic on the Rights of Man and George III had said he had no problem treating with them. Why are we still fighting? France is the strongest Power in Europe (triple England’s population with commensurate productive ability). Pitt says she has bankrupted herself fighting. It was as a bankrupt nation that she defeated us so decisively last season. We have accepted the Republican government and are willing to negotiate with it. What is the delay? Should we just confide in ministers and say nothing. When the King authorised peace did they pursue it? It is supposed that ministers feel themselves degraded by negotiations. Did the then King degrade himself by making peace proposals to France in 1760? That proposal was rejected by France and as a result the House of Commons willingly voted further funds to continue the contest. If we offer honourable terms now and they are refused, Grey would be content.
We have never publicly retracted our former professions that France was ineligible to negotiate with. This makes it difficult for France to take a leading position in initiating peace - the onus rests with us. France has long retracted the objectionable decree of fraternisation (the internationalisation of their Revolution). What have we done to respond?
When I made a motion last year to bring on peace negotiations, Pitt said it was derogatory of British honour. Since then Pitt had revised his opinions, forsaken the cause of monarchy, religion, morality and social order and pronounced our formal recognition of the French Republic. Yet, he is now starting another campaign, presumably to overthrow that government he so recently recognised. Ministers had shown no disposition to treat with France. If they did so and it was rejected, he would support the war. Grey was persuaded that his motion answered the case – we propose peace and see what happens. He moved that an address be presented to the King proposing to communicate with the French government and indicate our readiness to negotiate an equitable and honourable peace.
Pitt said that everything Earl Grey had said was irrelevant. The other allies had withdrawn from the alliance as a result of French policy to divide us. It was Pitt’s wish not to submit to this policy but to bring France to her knees and obtain her submission. If instead we seek for peace, we will have to adopt the laws of France. To ask for peace is to admit defeat. He agreed that the present French government was sufficiently well-founded to negotiate with. But French resources are expended whilst ours are formidable. We can ultimately expect that we will prevail and dictate a peace. Europe depends on England for the future happiness of mankind. While France remained hostile but bankrupt, he would never consent to make peace. He thought that making an overture of peace was not dishonourable provided it was predictably likely to lead to peace but the timing would depend on France.
He referred to a recent instruction from the Directory to the Legislature which contained no inclination to make peace. He alluded to another instruction of the Directory which expressed a readiness to treat (provided England asked for it) and ended “…. it is held for certain that our government, deeply impressed with the proofs of affection held out by the English people to the French, would insist on no other satisfaction or indemnification than the respective restitution of French and Dutch settlements now in British hands; and would require nothing more of the British ministry than that they should not interfere in the internal government of France and the Netherlands, nor in their wars with their neighbours.” Pitt supposed this was a genuine document. He categorised Grey’s motion as a confession of British weakness.
Fox said that the main French contribution causative of war had been the attempt to internationalise their revolution. That had since been abandoned. The French now declared they held no hostility towards any other country. That revised position required some sort of response from Britain because one of our published war aims was for the re-establishment of monarchy in France. He hoped the ministry would undertake to France not to meddle in her internal affairs.
Fox regretted that ministers had not acted on the King’s message. The King had said conditions in France were approaching a crisis and her government might be approached in a way consistent with the security of this country. Six weeks later the crisis is said to have arrived. Ministers should then have acted on the King’s advice. Throughout this period of pretended willingness to negotiate, ministers had done no such thing. An armistice might have been arranged. Parliament was long adjourned which allowed for a negotiation to commence.
Fox also objected to Pitt’s idea that French policy was to divide the allies and pick them off one by one. Was France under pressure when Prussia negotiated for peace? Were they in difficulty when they made peace with Spain? It was the same with the German princes (including Hanover). It was not at all the case that France divided us but that our allies deserted us. When we paid the loan to the Emperor last year he would not even bind himself to continue fighting. It was that reason that caused me to oppose the Austrian loan. Pitt has told us his ministry will take every opportunity to negotiate that the enemy presents to us but time had passed, nothing has been done, and Pitt’s offer appeared to be mere sophistry.
If negotiations were commenced could it be bad for Britain? Commerce would benefit. It would be the first indication we have given that peace is acceptable to us. It is often partisan hostility in the House of Commons that prolongs war. The partisan asperity today in this House equals our fixed attitudes in the war of Spanish Succession when we broke off negotiations at Gertruydenberg. Pitt’s language now is clearly not the language of peace. An offer to negotiate is the first step towards peace but Pitt says such a declaration by the country would humiliate us. This view has been rejected so often in our history it is shocking to see it reappearing. Pitt then said we cannot interfere with the King’s prerogative when it is precisely the minister’s duty to advise the King. Lord North made the same argument as Pitt when he opted to continue the war with America. Ministers often talk of state secrets and King’s prerogatives but this House does not have to listen. All the examples we have in our national history show that opposition to such arguments is invariably beneficial to the country.
Pitt has referred to a newspaper report from Hamburg containing a declaration said to come from the French Directory (recited above). This is hardly sufficient cause to reject peace. If the Directory of France is as ambitious as the news report suggests, it would be well to publish it widely amongst the French people. Popular opinion in a Republic might be expected to have a greater voice than in a monarchy.
It seems to be a truism that reason and justice are seldom involved in the affairs of the world. Justice submits to Power as had just occurred in Poland but to have justice on your side is a powerful tool in negotiation. At the time of the treaty of Gertruydenberg, if Louis XIV had acted towards the Pretender in the same way this ministry has lately acted towards Monsieur (Comte d’Artois - who was approached by Pitt’s emissary), this would have adduced accusations of bad faith from France.
Finally Pitt complains that a negotiation would limit his options. How can a minister object to a Declaration made by the House?
Fox then turned to British finances. It is no consolation to the British people to be told their enormous burdens and hardships are less than in France. Suppose France begged for peace and we made the most prosperous deal imaginable, would that compensate for the distress. Our annual tax revenue (the landed income) is about £25 millions. People are paying taxes at 100% of rental. If France is worse off that’s their problem; ours is bad enough. This hardship is forced on the people to allow the minister to fight another campaign. Even if it was successful, it would not compensate in the way a peace treaty will.
This is the time for peace. Fox is confident that reasonable terms are available. The Directory would not dare to refuse it because the people have a voice in a Republic and they would not submit to a prolongation of unnecessary war. Fox concluded with the wish that whatever terms are sought, they are available to all participants equally.
The House then divided on Grey’s motion which was rejected 50/189.
Sat 23rd July 1796
London paper - We hear 40,000 Prussians have entered Westphalia and are advancing towards the Netherlands in support of the Stadtholder. It is also rumoured that Spain is on the verge of re-entering the war.
Sat 23rd July 1796
The Empress of Russia died in Dec 1795.
Sat 23rd July 1796
European news:
The Company laid down five hulls in its India Docks in the Thames for its use – Lancaster, Weymouth, York, Monmouth and Ardent – but has now given them to the government. Their design has been modified to make them 64-gun warships.
The Dutch fleet that escaped with the Stadtholder (11 capital ships and 7 frigates) is now cruising in the North Sea as part of the Royal Navy.
The French are building many new warships: at Rochefort 2 x 120 guns, 7 x 74 guns, 5 x 50 guns and 2 x 44 guns; at Brest 1 x 120 gun, 1 x 90 gun, 6 x 74 guns and 8 x 44 guns.
Sat 23rd July 1796
The Spanish have released their prisoners in West Indies pursuant on making peace with France. Spanish expatriates have flocked to Santo Domingo to reinforce the slave army which is supporting the French in exchange for their freedom.
Sat 30th July 1796
Genoa, 22nd Jan 1796 – the insurrection on Corsica against Minto’s colonial government is becoming serious. A Corsican regiment in English pay has mutinied at Corte, attacked another British regiment and retired to Bastia. At that town six English officers were recently found murdered.
Sat 30th July 1796
London, 5th Feb - The presence of Comte d’Artois (Monsieur) in London has become embarrassing. The ministry importuned the King of Sardinia to nominate the Comte as his Ambassador to St James in order to give some diplomatic credence to Monsieur’s presence.
The Sardinian King rejected the proposal which has caused Pitt’s group to aver that Sardinia might make peace with Republican France.
Sat 30th July 1796
The Hague, 3rd March – the Batavian Assembly was convened on 1st March. It was created by a Commission from the States General. Peter Paulus was unanimously elected President. A new flag for the country has been introduced.
Sat 30th July 1796
The 1st anniversary of the execution of Louis XVI has been commemorated in Paris with a party. A colossal statue of liberty trampling the insignia of royalty and slavery was the centrepiece.
The National Convention is constitutionally prevented from assisting in the ceremony but held a private celebration in its own chamber. President Treilliard said Louis’ conspiracy against the sovereignty of the people had deserved death. Who would have thought it might be made the pretext for a formidable alliance of our enemies? England undertook to blockade our ports and cut off our supplies. Austria sent a host of soldiers against our infant Republic.
We had inadequate clothing and few arms but we were motivated by the expectation of freedom – (here is a long review of French victories) – but the enemy was not content to fight on our frontiers. They also excited civil discord within. European monarchs armed citizen against citizen and created discord in the National Convention. By stimulating anarchy amongst our people and exciting the murder of our legislators, our neighbours sought to destroy the Republic and reinstate monarchy. We desire peace and we swear hatred of royalty because the monarchical system is maintained by war.
Sat 6th August 1796
Paris, 31st Jan – The National Convention has issued some new money. Cash notes payable at three months from 50 – 2,000 livres have been printed and gold and silver coins have been struck at the mint. The silver coins are worth 5 livres each.
Extraordinary, Sun 7th Aug 1796
The Laurel has arrived at Bombay from Basra with despatches for government dated up to 19th April. She has continental newspapers to 12th April and London papers to 26th March.24
Short review of the European news:
Letters via Aleppo reporting news to mid-May say the French have comprehensively defeated the Sardinian and Austrian forces in Italy and the Sardinian King has sued for an armistice. The French commander demands possession of the forts of Otranto (?) and Tortona.
The Archduke Charles has arrived at Mainz to commence this season’s war on the Rhine.
The Marquis del Campo has been received as Spanish ambassador to Paris.
A large Dutch fleet has sailed from the Texel on 23rd Feb. Its destination is unknown but might be either the Cape or India. A smaller fleet has sailed from Rochefort supposedly for Mauritius (one of this fleet, La Bonne Citoyen, was captured by the English and found to contain troops, clothing and paper money).
The India Company has agreed to supply government with 3,000 seamen at 35 guineas per head.
The Russian Empress, at the time of her death, was assembling a huge army and the Swedes were copying her. They are also preparing a vast fleet.
Following the French example in West Indies, Wilberforce has proposed to the House of Commons that England abolish the trade in slaves.
HM’s 12th, 19th and 33rd regiments are being readied for service in India.
Lord Cornwallis has been court-martialled for undisclosed offences and acquitted. He has resigned as Head of Ordnance and retired to his estate.
Sat 13th Aug 1796
Paris – the assignats have been called in and are replaced at a rate of 30/1 by 2,400 million in mandats. This new paper money is secured on the value of the national estates, some of which are to be sold to raise 600 million livres to provide a bullion backing to the new paper issue. Forests of 300+ acres and buildings are not for sale. Gold and silver may no longer be traded in France.
Sat 20th Aug 1796
Letter from London - The capture of the Dutch colonies and our assumption of a monopoly control of the pepper, sugar, indigo, cotton and spice trades has opened new business opportunities in India and will enrich the Company’s sales in London next year. London will become the entrepot for all Europe.
Cotton from West Indies has been in short supply recently due to the slave revolt. The Company has been selling its finest Surat (the Ahmood cotton) for 20d per lb. The inferior qualities are also selling satisfactorily at 16 – 18d per lb. Pepper is oversupplied in London and has fallen to 14d per lb. Sugar likewise is down at 60/- per cwt. The Company’s recent sale of Indian saltpetre at 95/- per cwt was very cheap but the price is now recovering. Indigo is oversupplied for inferior qualities which are selling at 2/- to 3/- per lb. The good quality is holding up at 9/6d. The Company has such huge supplies it dominates the indigo market. Bengal piecegoods are unchanged except muslins which are in demand. The Company has chartered an extra 40 ships this year and will take more – shipping is the only thing limiting its trade opportunities.
Sat 20th Aug 1796
The American House of Representatives has heard an Address from CPS and the President’s reply to it. They contain expressions of mutual friendship.
Sat 27th Aug 1796
The Spanish ambassador to France has been received at Paris and the French ambassador to Constantinople (Brig General Aubert Dubayet) took his leave of the Legislators and departed for Turkey the same day.
Sat 27th Aug 1796
Burke has defended his acceptance of a pension to the MPs:
The Duke of Bedford and Earl of Lauderdale have honoured me. To incur the displeasure of a Duke of Orleans or a Duke of Bedford is like falling under the censure of Brissot or his friend Lord Lauderdale.
I work hard for what the King pays me. Before his help, I had quitted public life and retired to isolated contemplation. I had no money to do otherwise. He called me back and gave me his patronage. In the circumstances, I could hardly support the Duke of Bedford or the Corresponding Societies.
Bedford thinks I am overly rewarded. I am as well qualified as he to control vast sums of money. I introduced the Acts to control the expenditure of the Military Pay Office and the Civil List establishment. These reforms were not in the character of those the Duke promotes today. He knows the people are dissatisfied and he seeks to give them what they want. He is a reformer. He is not concerned to preserve the state so much as to reform it. The Duke supposes the people must be gratified.
I found there was too much influence in the House of Commons and reduced it article by article with clear reasons. I was not born with a silver spoon in my mouth. I am neither minion nor tool. I have had to daily evidence my fitness for the honour of being useful to my country.
The Duke of Bedford accuses me of instigating the present war. My honour welcomes the high distinction which in justice I cannot claim. That honour belongs to the King, his minister and his parliament, and to the great majority of his people. Had I alone counselled the nation, I should have been the author of the war, but it was not so. I will never make peace with regicides.
Sat 3rd Sept 1796
Paris – four factions appear to have formed in the Legislature and they were readily distinguished during the recent debate on the freedom of the press. The Girondists and Terrorists under Sieyes, Chenier and Louvet opposed press freedom whilst the Thermidorians and the newly elected Third Estate under Boissy d’Anglas, Tallien, Posteret and Lemerer supported it. The latter factions won. This was not what the Directory wanted to hear.
On 17th March Lemerer, a member of the Third Estate, said ‘the press is accused of denigrating government. Government employs many writers whose supportive views are widely circulated. It has 120,000 men under its direct orders - does not a soldier act for the man who pays him? The immense number of military commissions granted should not be forgotten. The sixteen departments should not be forgotten – they have been declared in a state of siege, removed from the protection of the Constitution and instead placed under the will of the Directory. If the Directory had succeeded in fettering the press, we men of the legislature would have to submit to it.
Sat 3rd Sept 1796
Letter from Leghorn, 1st March:
The island of Sardinia has rebelled. The people of Cagliari have massacred their General and the Intendant of Finances and declared a provisional government. They have dismissed all foreigners and permitted only those troops who took the Oath of Allegiance to their newly elected Head of the People, to remain. They have sent deputies to the King to demand their rights and they are dissatisfied with the response. The King’s Viceroy is permitted to remain but not to exercise any Power. The towns of the interior submit to the Popular Council and ignore the Viceroy.
Only Sassari continued to acknowledge the King and that was because the Duke of Asinara bought-off all the important residents twice. The lawyer Mondi is organising the Sardinians against Sassari. He brought 12,000 farmers to the walls of the town and, when the Sassarians would not let him in, he commenced destroying all the crops in the fields to deny them a harvest. The Governor of Sassari argued for admitting the rabble and reasoning with them. The bishop, clergy and minor nobility disagreed but the Governor was insistent.
He let them in and he and all the prominent people were arrested and sent off to Cagliari to explain themselves. About 40 families left Sarrari at that time. After their departure a popular government was proclaimed at Sarrari along the same lines as at Cagliari. The very few nobles and clergymen on the island who remain true to the King have reposed their hopes in the English to provide troops from Leghorn and restore the monarchy.
Two deputies from Sardinia attended the French ambassador at Genoa for numerous conferences during February and have since left for Paris to make their case there.
Sat 3rd Sept 1796
Cadiz, 2nd March – the Spanish Royal Family arrived here today from Seville. The streets are all decorated and bands are playing. There are bull fights each day and illuminations at night. The giant warship Santassima Trinidad (132) is in the bay and the Royals went on board to observe the proceedings. A mock sea battle was held for their amusement.
Sat 3rd Sept 1796
The House of Commons, 4th March:
The Lords have agreed to a request of the Commons to vote the King £2.5 millions for this year.
Curwen proposed the repeal of the game laws to permit the rural population to better feed themselves (by eating game or bringing it to market). Every legal authority agrees the Game Laws are unjust – they are a remnant of the feudal system. Prior to the Norman Conquest every Englishman might legally catch game – now wild birds and animals belong to the landowner and the poor are excluded from their use. These laws are a blot on British liberty, Curwen said. The proposal was voted down 27/50.
Sat 1st Oct 1796
Letter from Hamburg, 8th March:
Grouvelle, the French minister to Copenhagen, was received by the King on 4th March and his credentials were accepted. The diplomatic community at Copenhagen has been informed. It is rumoured that the first Danish minister to Paris will be Dreyer, the Privy Councillor, who has recently been serving as ambassador to Madrid.
The Danish newspapers justify Grouvelle’s acceptance on the grounds “the Danish government is motivated only by reason and truth. While France was under a revolutionary government it could not be Danish policy to make or sustain a diplomatic relationship. Now the French government is regularly organised, all difficulties are removed. This acceptance is a response to circumstances and conforms with our long held policy of strict neutrality.”
The French minister here at Hamburg is Reinhard but the city’s Senate is reluctant to acknowledge him. They say the relationship is commercial and a Consul is sufficient to regulate it. The Hamburg authorities are caught between their fear of Austria and of France. All the burghers were summoned to assemble on 10th March and decide this matter finally but the summons to assemble has just been rescinded.
We merchants need a friendly disposal of this question or our trade will be affected. Several underwriters have declined to insure our ships saying the French might take them as prize. A pamphlet in support of Reinhard, ‘A word to Hamburg’s Burghers’, has just been published but its circulation is being suppressed by the Senate.
Orostro, the ex Charge d’Affaires of Spain at Vienna, has been appointed minister to this city.
The King of Prussia has asked the French, in the event of a new war, that they respect the neutrality of northern Germany.
Sat 3rd Sept 1796
Review of the Paris Press in late March 1796:
A letter from Caen of 21st March says the Chouans continue to control the surrounding countryside and kill any peasants they find tilling the soil. There is a lack of Republican troops to confront and oppose them. They sneak around in bands of 40 – 50 men preventing farming, killing the purchasers of national property and any civil servants they find. They intercept most of the communications into and out of the town.
General Jourdain has dismissed 1,140 officers from his army for illiteracy.
Stock-jobbing has become a whimsical employment. Some speculators retain their assignats hoping they will again become valuable; others seek to sell their gold Louis d’Ors whilst their sale is still permitted.
A letter from Landau dated 21st March says the Austrian and French Generals at the front have agreed a separation of 30 leagues between their forces to prevent misunderstandings. As a result the Austrians have retired east and recrossed the Rhine.
General Pichegru has attended the National Feast of 30th March in Paris. He has had an interview with the Directorate who welcomed him. He is considered to be the cause of the peace. A treaty with Austria is pending. The Emperor’s negotiator was on the point of concluding a broad agreement for peace when an envoy arrived from Basel saying the English had raised objections.
A gentleman was arrested on stepping ashore at Bordeaux from a ship from Bremen. He is said to be the Royalist Duc de Polignac.
A current report says Merlin of Douai, the Police Minister, is to be made Ambassador to Venice.
Sat 17th Sept 1796
General Colli, commanding the army of Sardinia, has proposed an armistice to General Bonaparte, commanding the French army in Italy, to permit the King of Sardinia to send a Plenipotentiary to Genoa to negotiate peace.
Bonaparte replied that the Directory alone can make peace. Your King’s Plenipotentiary should either go to Paris or wait at Genoa for French representatives to come to him there. I cannot stay my progress for speculative reasons. I can accept your proposal for an armistice if you first give me possession of two of the three fortresses Coni, Alessandria and Tortona.
General Colli replies that he has asked the King and is allowed to offer Coni and Tortona as security however giving Tortona could jeopardise the disposition of the Sardinian army and he prefers to offer Desnout in its place, the status quo being observed in every other respect.
A missing paper is referred to that indicates Bonaparte will accept only the towns and fortresses of Coni and Alessandria and the citadel of Ceva.
On this being accepted, an armistice was signed on 26th April, to permit negotiations
Sat 24th Sept 1796
Letter from Genoa:
General Bonaparte’s army arrived outside this city in early April. No foreign soldiers are permitted into this city. All new residents who arrived in 1792 or later must leave. The nobility and gentry are also permitted to leave if they wish. The clergy in the suburbs have been assembled in the city. All public assemblies of more than three people are banned. The residents have been formed into militias and 12,000 farmers have been recruited. 2,000 irregulars have been sent to defend Lanterne and St Benigny. The English frigate Agamemnon has just arrived in port and says a British fleet is on its way. The new French minister Faypoult has just arrived with his lady.
A huge number of citizens are wearing the tricolor cockade. The rich merchants have sent their movable property to Tuscany. Forty senators, who protested at providing money to France, left with their cash and jewels for Turin but found that town in insurrection and diverted to Milan where they are being welcomed by the Archduke Ferdinand who is trying to quell the Turin insurrection and has arrested some ringleaders.
The late quarrel between Russia and Turkey is likely to force Spain to oppose Russia as well. The Spanish are determined to keep Russia out of the Mediterranean. They believe the Tsarina’s intent by this war with Turkey was to secure a foothold on the coast of the eastern Mediterranean. The Spanish and the Venetians are both likely to send fleets in support of Turkey. Venice is the only valuable property between the Ottoman Empire and Italy and its independence is crucial to the latter’s security.
French military dispositions permit Venice to assume an important role in this matter. In the event of hostilities, it is rumoured France will garrison the archipelago. The rich valley of the Po which comprises the hinterland to Venice, is secured at its western end by Milan. The possession of this city is the likely object of the French army of Italy. Milan has a history of 40 sieges, of which 22 were successful. The citadel contains 200 cannon. The merchants are rich and the local lands are productive. Bonaparte recently forced the King of Sardinia to surrender two fortresses, the most important of which is Coni, one of the most impregnable forts of Europe.
The Tsarina has declined to receive a Swedish ambassador at St Petersburg. He was sent to notify the impending marriage of the young Swedish King. The Swedish Regent has formed a close liaison with France during the King’s minority which the Russian Empress deeply dislikes.
Sat 15th Oct 1796
Letter from a staff officer of the French Army of the Coast to his father, dated Angers 27th March:
Charette arrived here yesterday. He is tall and stupid-looking and his clothes are filthy. He was found in a forest with 50 followers. Our column under General Valentine engaged him and killed 10-12 of his group (including the German who conducted the massacres). Charette withdrew but fell into the hands of Travot who brought him in. All his party were killed at the scene.
General Hoche was away and Charette was brought to General Hedouville to deal with. Charette says he knows nothing of English plans. That evening he was sent to Nantes for trial and execution. It seemed appropriate that the theatre of his violence should be the scene of his death.
We have recently captured a huge bundle of correspondence near St Malo. It is between the English and the émigrés. The letters are mainly addressed to Charette and to the leaders of the Chouans and Vendean forces. They expose English plans and will hasten our impending victory.
Charette had a pocket book containing some letters. Three were from Louis XVIII at Verona, one of which said the King appointed him Lt General of the Royalist Catholic army. Another letter was from Comte d’Antraigues. The numbers of Republican forces in La Vendee assures that the remaining bands of émigrés and deserters will soon be dispersed. This is the country of Stofflet and Sapineau, two famous bandit chiefs and of those Chouans who have been brought from England by Bourmont.
Sat 22nd Oct 1796
The examination of Lt General Charette has been published in Paris on 30th April. It was conducted by Pierre Perrin at the Boussay Prison in Nantes:
Francois Athanase Charette de la Contrie is 33 years old and a native of Coussay in Lower Loire. He was a lieutenant in the navy before the Revolution. He was appointed a Lt General of the Royalist army by Louis XVIII in Sept 1795. He received the appointment from M Lefevre, an émigré in the service of England. He is not directly in communication with Louis XVIII but received letters via the Council of Comte d’Artois with whom he has corresponded for 8 months.
He says his purpose in accepting the command of the Chouan army was to re-establish monarchy in France. At the general reconciliation held in Nantes he, amongst others, formally accepted the proffered amnesty and submitted to the laws of the Republic but his agreement was conditional on the Republic not undertaking any military activities in La Vendee. The agreement he made with the Republican government made him chief of the territorial guard responsible for maintaining order in the rebellious area. He says he was not in revolt until the Republicans broke their engagement to him.
Sat 24th Sept 1796
France 1st April – General Charette of the Royalist Chouan army has been executed. He was caught in late March and taken to Nantes. He was put on public trial and made some interesting observations in his evidence. He was defended by Villeneuve who said Charette had been a lieutenant in the navy and then been caught-up in political events by his colleagues and eventually became a chief of a party. All those who were senior to him in the party had died and he had risen to the top by this process of attrition. He is not a well educated man.
Villeneuve says Charette repudiated the amnesty granted him by the Republic because he heard the Deputy Gaudin was using the opportunity to send a military force to arrest Charette. He said he had received only 15,000 livres from the English. He corresponded with them whilst they were based on the Ile d’Yeu. They also sent him arms and ammunition. The Comtes d’Artois and d’Antraigues sent him a cipher to permit secure communications. Louis XVIII awarded him the brevet appointment of Lt General.
He complained a Republican general had written to him a couple of days before his arrest, promising sanctuary provided he leave France, and he was caught as a result of this trap. He requested the letter of that General be presented in evidence and indicated where it was but the Judges declined to order its production. He was then sentenced to die and taken to the execution ground where 5,000 troops were arranged on three sides of a square. He was placed on the fourth (open) side and shot.
Sat 10th Sept 1796
News from London:
The six gentlemen successfully elected to the Company’s Court of Directors this year include David Scott as the new Chairman and Hugh Inglis as the new Deputy Chairman.
The great import of grain into England in the last ten days (i.e. mid-May 1796) has reduced the price of a quartern loaf from 15d to 7½d.
Sat 10th Sept 1796
The King addressed both Houses on 19th May:
“Thank you for repressing sedition and alleviating the shortage of grain. It is a pleasure to see these difficulties have abated. I also thank you for the liberal payments provided for the prosecution of the war. It is a pleasure to observe the increase of resources of England that have permitted the payments. They result from the extension of our navigation and commerce, the improvement you have worked in the public credit and the reduction of the national debt.
“The French have opposed civilisation and the union of Order with Liberty that characterises our country. The French system is incompatible with ours and your conduct has preserved our Constitution. Your resistance to French principles is a just cause. Our national honour is maintained throughout Europe and our superior naval Power has established British hegemony around the globe. I am much obliged. Parliament is now prorogued until 5th July.”
Sat 10th Sept 1796
The British army is presently composed of the following regiments:
|
|
Life Guards |
2 |
|
|
Horse Guards |
1 |
|
|
Dragoon Guards |
7 |
|
|
Heavy Dragoons |
9 |
|
|
Light Dragoons |
26 |
|
|
Foot Guards |
3 |
|
|
Infantry |
90 |
|
|
Unnumbered infantry corps |
16 |
These 154 regiments employ 16,500 cavalry, 88,000 infantry and four battalions of artillery, totally c. 110,000 effectives, exclusive of the fencibles (cavalry and infantry) and the militias. There are also 12,000 Hanoverian and 5,000 Hessian mercenaries under our army establishment.
Sat 10th Sept 1796
European news to 27th May:
Sardinia has made peace with France. It is the result of two serious defeats on successive days that the King of Sardinia and the Austrian forces sustained in April at the hands of General Bonaparte. The battles were fought east of Turin about midway between Genoa and Milan. Bonaparte says ‘Citizen Murat, my aide-de-camp, was very helpful’.
The peace treaty gives France possession of Savoy and the Comtat of Nice. The Duke of Parma and Placentia has allied himself with the French. French armies have since crossed the River Po, the frontier of Austrian Lombardy, and stationed themselves at Placentia.
The Directory has informed the French Legislature that it has reason to suspect Drouet, the ex-postmaster of Varennes who arrested the King, of planning to instigate a Jacobin insurrection to remove the Directory and the 500 representatives.
The Indefatigable (Sir Edward Pellow) has captured the French frigate La Virginie (44). She was built about 2 years ago in America and rigged in the new way which made her the fastest ship in the French fleet. The Virginie has been cruising off the Canadian coast and captured at least four Newfoundland ships.25
The hereditary Princess of Orange and her son have arrived at Yarmouth.
Sat 24th Sept 1796
Paris, 17th April – Letournier, President of the Directory, has proclaimed a new danger to the Republic:
“Foreign infiltrators are promoting the old Constitution of 1793 through Jacobin clubs. Their supporters declare their wish to destroy the Republican Constitution and government and reinstate the old contract which requires the distribution of all property amongst the people generally, even down to shops. If they are successful, there will be another round of executions and strife and the country will be so weakened we will be unable to prevail over our enemies and monarchy will be re-introduced by the back door.
“On the one hand the English say they wish for peace whilst on the other they finance the distribution of these insurrectionary pamphlets that endeavour to destroy confidence in our national finances and assert the old Constitution as the best means of preserving the national wealth.
“Misguided people have assisted the old émigrés, the resident Royalists and priests, to attempt these ends but we acknowledge and respect all patriots and we wish to bring these people to an understanding of what is best for France. The foreigners have tried to propagate dissension amongst the rebellious groups but La Vendee is disarmed; L’Indre and Le Cher were prevented from rebellion as soon as the instigators were caught attempting it; the Chouans are being beaten everywhere they try to foment trouble. Our armies are again deployed to tackle these internal disorders and severe measures will be taken against the nobles and priests who do not desist from their divisive activities.
“The Directory loves patriots and welcomes them into the bosom of France. We do not want Frenchmen fighting Frenchmen. Forget the promises that the tyrants offer you – to evaluate their promises you should remember the condition of France under their government. It is this Republican government that can alone give you order and tranquillity and protect your property.”
Sat 24th Sept 1796
Le Redacteur, 10th May (the official government paper):
“A faction is trying to prevent peace, overturn the Republican government and restore monarchy. The new divisive ideology does not overtly promote monarchy or religion but, astonishingly, democracy. The rebels say they are more democratic than the Republican government. Your government has banished some of the heads of this faction from Paris and sent away those army units that appeared persuaded to support them, but a numerous band of conspirators in the pay of foreigners continues to promote these fatal ends.
“The Directory has now filled the National Guard with good citizens as a force to awe the rebellious and comfort the obedient. It is the Republican government that is protecting you from these dangers. You citizens of Paris are being saved by us from further massacres and plunderings.
“The Directory has announced the arrests of several conspirators to the National Convention. A revolt was intended to be commenced 11th May and has been prevented by strong executive action. We regret to say Drouet was discovered to be a leader of the rebels and had to be arrested too. Please consider the matter and empower the Directory appropriately to frustrate this rebellion.
“The rebels have united around a gang of ex-Deputies, removed from office for various good reasons, together with the disaffected men of disbanded military units. These people roam Paris pursuing their personal advantage. The Directory believes new law is necessary to control them. Those ex-Deputies and soldiers who have no employment in Paris should be required to leave. Those returned émigrés, those foreigners who are not diplomats and who have come to reside here only recently - they also should all be required to leave in three days. They must withdraw at least 10 leagues from Paris. Please find a means of distinguishing the good from the bad so order may be preserved along with justice.” Sgd Carnot President and Lagarde Secretary General.
Sat 24th Sept 1796
American newspapers:
Some members of the House of Representatives say they are appalled at Jay’s treaty with the English and demand to see the instructions given to the representative and all correspondence relative to the treaty. Washington refused on Constitutional grounds in the following terms:
“The nature of foreign negotiations requires caution; and success often depends on secrecy. Even when brought to a conclusion, a full disclosure of all the measures, demands or concessions which may have been proposed or contemplated, would be extremely impolitic; for this might have a pernicious influence on future negotiations, or produce immediate inconveniences, perhaps danger and mischief, in relation to other Powers.
“The necessity for such caution and secrecy was one cogent reason for vesting the power of making treaties in the President, with the advice and consent of the Senate; the principle on which that body was formed confined it to a small number of members……
“All the papers … were laid before the Senate, when the Treaty itself was communicated for their consideration and advice….. provided two thirds of the Senators present concur …. Every treaty so made and promulgated … becomes the law of the land.
“When the State Conventions were deliberating on the Constitution there was no requirement in commercial treaties to obtain the consent of two thirds of the whole Senate but only two thirds of the Senate present; in Treaties concerning territorial claims the concurrence of three fourths of the Members of both Houses was not required but three fourths of those present. If these facts and the wording of the Constitution itself do not make the point clear, I ask Representatives to recall the Journals of the General Convention which are archived in the State Department in which a proposition was made that no Treaty should be binding on the United States unless ratified by a law. That proposition was explicitly rejected.
“It follows that the assent of the House of Representatives is unnecessary to validate a treaty.”
Sat 1st Oct 1796
The King of Prussia is a dedicated capitalist. Last year he sold his 4,000 French prisoners to the allies to be incorporated in the émigré regiments. This year, having made peace and reduced his cavalry regiments, he has sold 10,000 horses to a Jewish contractor who will sell them on to the French government. Supplying both sides is a good way to maintain a war.
Sat 1st Oct 1796
The Spanish are evacuating Santo Domingo. The freed slaves are in command of the island. Property is selling at 10% of its value last year.
Sat 8th Oct 1796
Journal de Frankfurt, Paris 11th May – Drouet, who was long detained by the Austrians and only recently exchanged, has almost immediately been implicated in a plot to blow-up the Directory and seize control of the government. Several famous Jacobins are said to be involved - Babeuf, editor of the Tribune of the People, Laignelot and Ricord, members of the old National Convention, Darthes and Germaine, secretaries of Bouchotte, ex-General Rossignol and the secretary of the late Joseph Lebon together with Challes and Antonelle, joint editors of the Journal des Hommes Libres - and have all been arrested. The ex-Constitutionals Vadier and Amar escaped and are being sought.
A bundle of 35,000 pamphlets entitled Death to Tyrants, Happiness to the People was found. A seal engraved ‘Constitution of 1793’ on one side and ‘Committee of Public Welfare’ on the other was also seized. The plot was financed with 12 millions in Mandats and 12,000 livres cash. Enquiries into the source of the funds are continuing. Once the arrests had been made the Directory met and the following proclamation was issued:
“A plot to murder all the Legislators and the senior officers of the government and army has been discovered. The conspirators proposed to achieve this before declaring the Constitution of 1793. In the ensuing chaos they planned to encourage looting and violence and make Paris anarchic. You are commended to attend to your usual concerns and abandon these wretches to the legal process.”
Sat 15th Oct 1796
The House of Commons, 18th April – Sheridan requested Windham to reveal the contents of the letter which the ministry had received from the émigré Comte Charles de Sombreuil (the émigré officer who led the invasion of Brittany. He was captured and executed). The ministers had said it was a private letter but an unauthorised publication in the London papers suggested it contained exclusively public arguments.
Sombreuil’s first letter, dated HMS John, 8th July at Portsmouth Roads, said:
“I don’t know where you are sending me with these troops, or how we are to be fed or conduct ourselves. I have no ammunition and no agreed means of communication with you. I should appreciate the secondment of a bi-lingual officer from the Inspectorate who will assist in translating your documents.”
The second letter to Windham says:
“I have written all the information in my possession to Sir John Warren who will acquaint you with our circumstances. Please pay the bearer 500 livres to be disbursed amongst my servants. I feel I have abandoned them but not they me. You will not lose by payment – I have lost several of your government securities which will never be drawn.”
Windham said ‘I did my best to stop de Sombreuil going but he was implacable. He said he could not ignore a call of honour.’
General Smith said Puisaie, the CiC of the army, was unworthy of command. It was likely that de Sombreuil requested his letters be published to exonerate himself from the failure of the expedition.
Fox deplored the ministry’s attempt to conceal an honourable man’s letter and, by doing so, leave him suspected of dishonour.
Pitt said the Quiberon Bay expedition had been planned before de Sombreuil came to London.
Sat 22nd Oct 1796
London, 2nd April – the Drury Lane Theatre held a rare single performance of Shakespeare’s little known work Vortigern. The theatre was filled early and literally thousands were sent away from the doors. The play is produced by Mr Ireland, the owner of the Vortigern manuscript, who resents the aspersions cast on its authenticity by Mr Malone and offers this opportunity to the general public to form their own opinion on its authorship.
The audience was very attentive initially but once it was apparent that the Shakespearian spark that animates all his work was absent in this, disappointment turned to resentment and finally to indignation. Much of the dialogue was reminiscent of passages in Macbeth, Richard III, Henry VIII, Lear and As You Like It but that was a close to Shakespeare as it got. There was a regrettable amount of inappropriate laughter from the audience. All in all, the production was so bad it was quite enjoyable.
Sat 29th Oct 1796
The Elector Hanover and the Duke of Wurtemberg have recruited a new force of mercenaries from amongst the people of their Electorates and sent them to Gibraltar to reinforce the British garrison there. It is feared that Gibraltar may be besieged by Spain soon.
Sat 29th Oct 1796
On the approach of Bonaparte’s Army of Italy, the Republic of Venice expelled Louis XVIII from Verona without notice and he spent 7 days travelling through frozen terrain over the St Gotthard Pass to the Prince of Conde’s army at Riegel. He was accompanied by the Duc de Fleury, Comte d’Avary and Viscount d’Agoulte. On his arrival on 29th April, the Prince of Conde notified Wickham and Crawfurd, the two British envoys to the émigré army, who were surprised.
The King embraced his nephew the Duc de Berry. He presented the sword of Henri IV to the Prince of Conde. He published a note in General Orders extolling Conde and recognising the generous support of the Austrian and British Kings. The King then chatted with all the émigré officers who were delighted by his arrival.
Sat 12th Nov 1796
Message of the Directory to the French legislature:
The English suggested peace negotiations but they were not genuine and merely intended to delay our preparations while they raced ahead with theirs.
All serious talk of peace was evaded by Wickham on frivolous pretexts. This has been our usual experience with Pitt’s ministry. The views of Pitt’s group are invariably adopted by the Royalist faction which the minister maintains in our midst. We have offered peace on moderate terms although we have no doubts of the continuing triumph of our arms. It is apparent that we cannot bring the English to peace until they have been deprived of all means of continuing the war. We must commence a vigorous campaign.
The harmony between the Directory and the Legislature of our country and the suppression of factions is dreadful to our enemies. The increased circulation of provisions, the willingness of our youth to join the colours and our increased tax receipts following the forced loan, allow us to expect a glorious campaign. However we are still short of cash and we have to requisition some of the draught and saddle horses of the nation for the war effort. It was the shortage of horses in the last campaign that prevented our making the most of our battles - every time we engaged the enemy, they were superior in cavalry. The Directory proposes the Legislature consider taking every thirtieth horse in the country.
Sgd Reubell, President.
Sat 12th Nov 1796
Citizen Derche of the Foreign Ministry has published a justification for France keeping her eastern frontier on the Rhine. He shows the need for a strong barrier against Austria (‘one of the despoilers of Poland’, he says) and that we can claim the lands west of the Rhine as indemnity for the war we have been forced to wage against the autocrats. The people in the newly occupied lands are to be fellow citizens, not 2nd class subjects. Their rich lands have been a constant source of strength to those who attack us. This danger must be addressed.
We should all be constantly aware of what the autocrats have done to Poland. We must take care that peace negotiations with monarchies like Austria are not merely to let them refresh themselves. The French Republic should enforce a higher standard of international morality. We offer the people of Europe a real guarantee that our borders on the Rhine, Alps and Pyrenees are permanent and will never be extended.
If we return to our former limits, the benefits of the Netherlands alliance will be lost; that country will be subjected again; gold will again flow into France to finance anarchy.
Derche considers that without strong frontiers, France will be forever open to English conspiracies to foment civil war. The war itself is the work of émigrés and their guilty flight was no loss but the salvation of our body politic.
Sat 26th Nov 1796
Queen Donna Maria of Portugal, on the advice of her Board of Commerce, Agriculture, Industry and Navigation, has on 13th May offered to open Junqueira near Lisbon as a free port (except sugar and tobacco) effective 1st Jan 1797 for the trade of Eastern goods into her country or for export.
The sole duty on re-exports is 1%; on imports the usual rates. Meats, grain and other foods continue to be imported duty-free and may be re-exported duty-free as well. These regulations will apply even if Portugal is at war.
Sat 26th Nov 1796
On 7th July eight Chouan officers of the army of General de Sombrieul arrived at Dover. Without British support they cannot win the civil war in France. The Republican general who defeated them offered to reinstate them in their estates but these eight preferred to withdraw. The Chouan officers have exhorted their men to cease fighting and their army has dispersed. Peace is restored on both banks of the Loire and in Anjou.
Wed 30th Nov 1796 Extraordinary
A Dutch fleet arrived at the Cape in early August and surrendered to the British. It was supposed to meet-up with a French fleet and re-occupy Capetown but they did not meet and the British fleet opposed them at sea whilst a British army denied them to land. They anchored in Saldanha Bay and Elphinstone’s fleet approached which, it is said, they mistook for the French.
Rear Admiral Lucas manned the yards and saluted whereupon Elphinstone unfurled British colours. Lucas surrendered on 17th Aug without a shot. Admiral Lucas commanded the Dutch with 3 capital ships, 5 frigates, a sloop and a large storeship loaded with the supplies and a battering train for the reduction of the Capetown fort. A large number of the sailors, who include many Swedes and Danes, then agreed to enter British service.
A strange thing is that Lucas supposedly expected to connect with the French Admiral Richery but that officer sailed from Cadiz and went cruising in the Mediterranean only days before the Dutch were captured at the Cape. It seems he was unaware of the plan - Anglophile Hollanders in the Dutch navy?
This failed invasion appears to have been intended to be a major FrancoDutch attempt to recover the Cape and re-open the route to eastern seas for their navy and commerce. Now, they will have to find another way to the East.
Wed 30th Nov 1796 Extraordinary
News from Europe:
The initial AustroGerman successes on the Rhine have been reversed. The French right under General Moreau has reached Augsburg; the French left under General Jourdain has taken Frankfurt and arrived at Nuremberg.
The Duke of Wurtemburg has made peace with France. He has surrendered all his lands west of the Rhine and guaranteed not to assist the coalition of Kings. French troops will occupy all his military posts and may traverse his country on application. The Swabians have withdrawn from the German Confederation and also made peace. They negotiated the terms at the Congress of Augsburg in early August.
Lord Bute, our ambassador to Madrid, has been recalled and it appears Spain will very soon declare war on England. The Spanish King has itemised 63 separate complaints against England. A combined fleet of French and Spanish warships has departed Cadiz.
In Italy Bonaparte has headquartered himself at Belzano in the Tyrol and General Wurmser has retreated out of the country with the Austrian army.
Louis XVIII was looking out of the window of an inn at Dellingen in the lands of the Elector of Treves at about 10pm on 19th July when a fellow in the opposite house shot at him with a carbine. The bullet hit the King on the head and fortunately caused no serious injury.
The India fleet from Bombay has arrived safely in London. Bombay merchants had 1½ million Rupees invested in it of which a million was insured with the Bombay Insurance Office.
Wed 30th Nov 1796 Extraordinary
The 3% consols were 59 – 60 on 23rd August.
Wed 30th Nov 1796 Extraordinary
The Spanish ambassador to St James, Marquis de las Casas, has presented Lord Grenville with the list of 63 Spanish complaints which have arisen since she made peace with France. The principal ones are:
The Sta Jago was illegally taken as prize;
At Toulon the Spanish commanders gave guarantees to the Toulonese on evacuating the town which British commanders declined to honour, specifically we took all the French prizes without sharing them;
A huge quantity of timber bought in the Baltic by British merchants on Spanish account was not delivered to buyers but kept in England and allowed to rot;26
When the French gained possession of the major Spanish foundries, Spain, with British agreement, brought its replacement arms and ammunition in England. Having paid, the British government embargoed the export and repurchased the goods at its own cheap valuation;
The insulting behaviour of Grenville to the Marquis de las Casas on his first interview;
Spanish merchants bought silk at Cadiz from the prizes of French Admiral Richery and sent their purchases to England, as the British requested, where they were confiscated; and
The vexatious daily stopping and searching of Spanish merchant ships by British squadrons in the Mediterranean.
de las Casas has retired to Bath to await Grenville’s response. If unsuitable, he will leave for Spain from Bristol. The important officers of his suite have already obtained passports for their departure.
Wed 30th Nov 1796 Extraordinary
HMS Gratton (Trollope) encountered and engaged a fleet of six Dutch warships off Goeree. Eventually the Dutch veered off for Flushing. HMS Gratton was too heavily damaged to pursue. In mid-August Trollope was feted at Lloyd’s Coffee House. They gave him a present and three cheers and Trollope was quite overcome. He adjourned to another room and wrote out his acknowledgements as he doubted his ability to speak them.
Sat 3rd Dec 1796
The Portuguese Queen has been given a difficult choice – either leave the coalition of Kings or be invaded by 60,000 French troops.
Sat 3rd Dec 1796
The British election results are reproduced in full. Paul Benfield and W Boyd are the MPs for Shaftsbury; Wm Pitt is again elected for Cambridge University; Lord Mornington (Wellesley) for Old Sarum; Palmerston for Winchester; Charles Grey gets in for Northumberland as usual, etc.
Sat 10th Dec 1796
French policy in Europe is becoming clear. They lost the war at sea but are winning on the land. The large number of troops they are able to call upon are supported by the resources of the countries they conquer. They are successively closing the ports of Europe against British trade. The Netherlands and Italy are already closed. Spain appears likely to be next and that will pressure Portugal to close as well. Then they are expected to focus on our access to the Baltic.
Portugal believes it will be attacked. The value of British property in Oporto equates with the amount France seized from us in Leghorn – we have a prodigious investment in port wine and cork. British wine importers have actually increased their stocks at Porto in view of the recent increase in British import duty on wines landed in England. They now bring in only as much as they can instantly sell. There is no bonding available for foreign wines landed at London. The wine merchants have interviewed Pitt who is considering permitting a bond.
Sat 27th Jan 1798
Éclair Gazette, 11th June – The foundation of the Federation of the Cisalpine Republic was celebrated at Milan on 9th June. The new Republic incorporates the western Po Valley and the Alpine foothills to the north. It is the buffer state created by Bonaparte to protect the French S E frontier from Austria. Deputies from all the departments of the new Republic attended and officials from Bologna, Ancona, Venice and most other Italian states observed the proceedings.
Bonaparte had first placed 6,000 French and 4,000 Lombard troops in the town to ensure good order. The new Republic is divided administratively into eleven departments. Mantua and Brescia are not included. The new legislative body is the Consultenti. It has four committees - Constitution, Military, Finance and Justice. The organisation appears to have been Bonaparte’s own initiative.
Sat 27th Jan 1798
The same edition of Éclair also reports a request from the Diet at Ratisbon to the Austrian Emperor which was forwarded to Paris. The German states demand the French Directory remove their troops from Imperial soil including Liege. The Directory replied that the integrity of the Empire was stipulated in the peace preliminaries but it could not include Liege which had been reunited with France unless the treaty now being negotiated with England should require it. The Emperor contrarily says Liege is his and he will not make peace without it. Barthelemy is persuading his fellow Directors that the construction of the peace preliminaries permits an understanding that Liege is part of Austria. The Directors disagreed but on 27th June they voted 3/2 in the Emperor’s favour. Liege and Stavelto are accordingly to retain their ancient Constitutions.
Sat 17th Dec 1796
Bonaparte’s report to the Directory from Bologna, dated 23rd June:
I have taken the castle of Urbino at Modena (within the Papal States). It contained 50 good cannon and provisions for 600 men for two months. There was 25,000lbs of powder and 15,000 shot. The garrison comprised 300 men under one of the Knights Templar of Malta. As the Templars serve the Pope, they surrendered voluntarily.
We have also occupied Ferrera where another Templar commanded the garrison and had 114 cannon. This extra artillery will be useful for the siege of Mantua.
A contribution will be levied on Bologna once we have estimated its worth. Twenty paintings, part of the indemnity from the Pope, have been sent from Parma to Paris including the celebrated picture of St Jerome although the locals offered us a million if we would allow them to keep it. Barthelemy is at Modena selecting paintings there. He intends to take 50, amongst which is Michael Angelo’s St Cecilia. Our botanists are at Pavia taking specimens of the exotic plants there for our National Botanical Garden. We found a huge collection of snakes there which is being sent to you too.
At Milan I interviewed the famous Oriani (the astronomer). It was the first time he had been in the Archduke’s palace and he was overwhelmed by the opulence. As he appeared independent of the previous government I undertook to pay his salary and gave him every verbal encouragement. I will send you copies of my letters.
Sat 31st Dec 1796
By late June it was apparent that Bonaparte would enter Leghorn. He moves his army so quickly he repeatedly surprises us. William F Windham, the British Plenipotentiary now at Leghorn, has been obliged to remove on board HMS Inconstant in the harbour. The British Consul John Udny has advised the British community to leave. There are 23 British merchant ships in harbour. Most moveable British property has been loaded on board the shipping, including 240 oxen, and will be taken to Corsica. A handful of Britons plan to remain.
Sat 19th Nov 1796
The Company’s cruiser Antelope arrived from Basra via Bushire yesterday with European news to 19th July:
War in Italy - Milan surrendered to the French on 20th June. Bonaparte took Leghorn at the same time. The Governor of Leghorn is sent a prisoner to the Grand Duke of Tuscany at Florence. He is accused by Bonaparte of violating the strict neutrality he had promised by allowing the English to carry off two French ships from Leghorn as prizes.
Spain has pleaded for the Pope. Bonaparte and his Civil Commissioners have conceded an armistice to him, which he desperately needed. The Pope has sent a Plenipotentiary to Paris for negotiations. The French are angry with the Vatican because of the murder of their representative Basseville in the Papal States. They also object to the Pope’s imprisonment of democrats.
The terms France wants are to have Papal ports opened to French shipping and closed to the English; They propose to retain Bologna and Ferrera and occupy Faenza too; They demand the delivery of Ancona and all its defences. They require 100 works of art (pictures, vases and statues) and 5 manuscripts from the Papal Collection as indemnity for their trouble and will send a man to Rome to select them. The bronze bust of Junius Brutus and the marble bust of Marcus Brutus are on the list. The Pope will also pay an indemnity of 21 millions livres – 15½ millions will be in specie and spices, the rest in horses and other goods - in addition to the contributions levied on Bologna, Ferrera and Faenza. All the horses and goods are to be delivered at Genoa or Leghorn within 3 months. French armies will have right of passage through Papal lands. The Pope has no conceivable alternative and is expected to concede all of this.
As of 2nd July Bonaparte’s HQ was at Bologna.
Bonaparte has ordered cannon and a battering train from Toulon for the siege of Mantua. Nelson on Agamemnon is trying to prevent its shipment. On 31st May the British Admiral saw six French ships and attacked them. He captured the two convoying warships and all five transports with cannon and provisions.
War on the Rhine – the French tactic has been to split their forces and penetrate along two lines to Strasbourg and Dusseldorf, then join-up and cut off the Emperor’s strong forts at Mannheim and Mentz. In this way they occupy a large part of Swabia.
War in Spain? - Britain is suspicious of Spanish tolerance of France. The Spanish navy is being strengthened and St Roc is being reinforced. Britain is reinforcing Gibraltar and may declare war on Spain if it suspects Spain is not strictly neutral.
The 3% consols dropped under 60 on 19th July. All bonds are down, others are untraded.
Sat 10th Dec 1796
Present State of the War by M Peltier addresses the European situation in early July 1796:
In ten weeks since the opening of this year’s campaign we have seen twelve great battles. The Austrians started with an advance on the Moselle and Saar intending to get General Jourdain to abandon Dusseldorf and withdraw to protect Alsace Lorraine. The French permitted this as the country they abandoned was destitute of resources. As the Austrians penetrated in the centre, the French armies moved north and south and encircled them. General Moreau was ordered over the Rhine at Strasburg to create a diversion. Astonishingly the Rhine had been left unguarded at that point. By the time the Austrians assembled in force the French had over 40,000 men across the river and were invincible.
Five countries have requested for peace with France. The Margrave of Baden, the Duke of Wurtemburg and the Prince of Furstemburg are amongst them. The Prince of Conde had to withdraw with his Royalist army as fast as he could. There are now 100,000 French Republican troops over the Rhine and the only opposition is 35,000 Austrians who will likely have to withdraw over the Neckar and Danube. All this destruction has been voluntarily sustained by the autocrats to re-establish monarchy in France.
In Italy, Milan capitulated on 29th June. Mantua must do so soon. Leghorn was entered on 27th June after the British fleet withdrew. The cabinet of Naples (the Two Sicilies) has made peace. The Pope has been obliged to accept hard terms and the principal works of art in Rome and Bologna are going to Paris.
Sat 17th Dec 1796
A London newspaper has reported that 100 bloodhounds have been imported to Jamaica from Cuba to be used in the war with the Maroons. The Spanish farmers of Cuba trained these dogs to hunt the native Indians on Cuba and it seems Lord Balcarras, the military governor of Jamaica, has the same plan. General McLeod raised the matter in the House of Commons. Pitt said England did not fight with dogs. Yorke said the purpose of the bloodhounds was to track the Maroons not to savage them.
Balcarras, when he heard of the debate, wrote on 2nd May:
“The dogs were in the rear of my column. Their presence may have caused many Maroons to surrender but they were never used in battle. The dogs were imported at the order of the General Assembly of Jamaica which sent one of its members to procure them in their own ships – it was an act of the planters and nothing to do with British military activities.
“British merchants’ investments in Jamaica are worth £40 millions and we cannot have these Maroons causing trouble. They have control of the centre of the island and Montego Bay. They are wild fighters of the guerrilla type. They are skilful in ambushing our columns. They have all taken an Oath to murder white men. These former servants are killing their masters! They take no prisoners. We have often heard the screams of our captured soldiers.
“Our Rules of War differ for defence and attack – a fort can use red hot shot in its defence but a ship-of-war (a means of aggression) cannot. I employ dogs to sniff-out these guerrillas.”
Sat 17th Dec 1796
7th July – 16 new Scottish peers have been elevated at Holyrood. They are the Marquisate of Tweeddale, and the Earldoms of Aboyne, Breadalbane, Cassilis, Cathcart, Dalhousie, Dumfries, Elgin, Errol, Glasgow, Napier, North Esk, Somerville, Stair, Strathmore and Torphichen. This increase in the King’s influence in the House of Lords makes him overwhelming.
Lord Lauderdale has protested against the elevation of Earl of Errol. In 1666 the Earldom was given to Gilbert and his male heirs. In 1674 it was granted to John of Killour but the authorising Charter that was done at Edinburgh was not done by the King and thus does not comply with legal requirements. Nevertheless, Lauderdale supports the principle that all the Scottish peers should vote at Westminster and he voted in favour of the other 15 new peers.
Sempill objected to the ‘unjust and ruinous’ war and thought the internal government of Britain was subversive of Liberty. If the centralisation of Power on George III continues, the Constitution will become worthless. Sempill would not vote for a peer who supported the war. Accordingly he would support only one applicant – Lauderdale. He protested that he was one of the peers who was qualified to vote in the next session but had been excluded because he held liberal views.
Sat 17th Dec 1796
London Gazette, 20th Aug:
A force from the new British colony of Corsica has taken possession of Porte Ferraio, the port of Elba on 10th July, in accordance with instructions of Minto, Viceroy of Corsica.
Elba belongs to the Duke of Piombino while the town of Porto Ferraio belongs to the Grand Duke of Tuscany. With Bonaparte in possession of most of northern Italy, Minto felt this toehold of Italian soil on Elba had to be removed from his potential possession. Elba had earlier been intended by the French as the base for their invasion of Leghorn. Porto Ferraio is an excellent safe harbour protected by three forts – Cosmopoli, Stella and Falcone.
The failure of strict neutrality by the Grand Duke’s Governor at Porto Ferraio was Minto’s reason for his order. Porto Ferraio (named for some old iron mines nearby) is on an islet connected to Elba by a bridge and canal. The port is protected by 100 cannon and a garrison of 400 excluding the local militia. The Governor required a little time to consult with the leading citizens (Tuscans control the island’s economy). Nelson brought his warships into harbour to encourage the Governor to surrender peacefully. This was a good (but rare) example of combined operations working well.
Sat 17th Dec 1796
Le Courier du Bas Rhin has reviewed the qualities of the various army commanders. The Austrian armies against France are led by French émigrés:
General Wurmser comes from Alsace. He entered Austrian service after the Seven Year’s War and is now 80 years old. There is an Austrian regiment of hussars that bears his name.
General Bellegarde commands the Army of the Lower Rhine under the Archduke Charles. He is about 40 years old and has French parents. He has fought well and skilfully for the coalition. He was seriously wounded at Dunkirk in the last campaign.
The French commanders opposed to them are:
Moreau, who studied law at Rennes before the war. He is about 28 years old.
Jourdain who was a private in the French Guards before the Revolution. He is now about 36 years old and skilled in the new military tactics that the French have evolved.
Bonaparte comes from Corsica. He was educated in France and rose to Captain in the artillery. His recreation was always a study of politics and history. He is an ambitious and ‘giddy young man’. He directed the siege of Toulon and over-ruled the arrangements made by the generals. They thought him presumptuous but his plan contributed greatly to the reduction of the town and forced the precipitant flight of the English. As a result they made him general of artillery in the Army of Italy. There, he found he was supporting an operation of which he could not approve. He produced his own plan for the campaign and it was adopted. He is both successful and economic. The CPS transferred him to the infantry but he resented the appointment and visited Paris to ask to be instead sent to Constantinople apparently to serve against Austria from there. At that time Barras was CiC and he took Bonaparte as his aide from whence he rose to command the Army of the Interior. At that time he met and married a rich young widow. He then left Paris for the conquest of Italy. He is 27 years old, short and thin. He never despairs of success and is always cool and collected. He has few social graces but speaks precisely and gracefully. Usually he has little to say. He is above the intriguing factions and has the interests of his country at heart.
Sat 17th Dec 1796
An action has commenced in the Court of King’s Bench in which the London newspaper the Telegraph is suing the government-supported Morning Post newspaper:
On 10th Feb 1795 the French paper L’éclair published the articles of a peace treaty between the German Emperor and France. Unknown to any of the Editors it was actually a British spoof (evident from the English type faces) and part of our campaign to misinform the people.
Edger, the Telegraph agent, employed Peters who brought the French newspaper from Boulogne. Peters told Edger he could find only one copy and it had cost him 5/- which Edger was unwilling to pay.
M/s Fuller and Stewart, proprietors of the Morning Post, learned of Edger’s interest and, knowing the article was propaganda, bought Peters’ copy and sent it gratis to the Telegraph which published the details as genuine. The Court gave judgement for the Plaintiffs in £100.
Sat 31st Dec 1796
The American community in Paris has celebrated the anniversary of their independence. Ambassador Monroe and the resident American merchants entertained numerous ministers and legislators and all the foreign ambassadors together with several French Generals. An empty place was set for La Fayette who had commanded the American light infantry in the War of Independence. He and his family continue to be imprisoned by the Austrians.
Sat 31st Dec 1796
The Archduke Charles was forced out of the lower Rhine on 19th July when the French occupied Frankfurt. The Archduke will try to connect with the other Austrian army under Wurmser. The Frankfurters are surprised by the French. They had been schooled to expect barbarous violence but the occupiers are behaving better than the Austrian troops. The French have permitted the Austrian garrison to leave with its artillery, arms & ammunition and baggage. The French have decreed they will not force Mandats on suppliers – all purchasing will be by agreement. The only requisitions on Frankfurt will be by the Commissariat.
NB – all 1797 editions missing from the British Library copy. Contemporary accounts of the British naval mutinies, the attempted coup d’Etat in France under cover of British peace negotiations and the early parts of the insurrection in Ireland are all unavailable.
Tues 2nd Jan 1798
The Company’s ship Viper has arrived from Basra with European news to 15th Sept 1797. On this occasion no continental newspapers are available. The only news we have is from London:
The peace negotiations at Lille have stalled. The London editors are not explicit as to the reason but it seems to relate to the alleged involvement of our government in funding and organising a conspiracy lately discovered in Paris to overthrow the French government and restore monarchy.
The conspiracy involves several leading French politicians, most of whom are Jacobins - the people Pitt has repeatedly said he will not negotiate with.27
Tues 2nd Jan 1798
Vienna 6th Aug – One of the last acts of Director Barthelemy before the discovery of his involvement in the émigré conspiracy to recover the government of France, was to make application to the Austrian Imperial government on behalf of the French Republic to permit Lafayette to leave Europe for America.
The American consul at Lower Saxony will organise the details.
Tues 2nd Jan 1798
A peace treaty between France and Portugal is announced. The London papers ignore the terms but we suppose they duplicate the preliminary agreement which preceded the peace treaty. That required Portugal to pay 10 millions, provide commercial advantages and close her ports to British prizes. There may be a cession of some Brazilian lands as well.
Apart from an incident on HMS St George (Peard), part of Admiral St Vincent’s squadron, there have been no further mutinies in the navy. Peard executed the four ringleaders on 9th July and that was sufficient to secure his crews’ submission.
In July the Earl of Mornington was said to have been appointed Governor of Madras to replace Lord Hobart who has turned-out to be unsuitable.
England is tranquil; the Scots are irritated by the Militia Act;
3% consols on 14th Sept were 52½ and continuing their descent trajectory.
Wed 31st Jan 1798 Extraordinary
Portugal has negotiated peace with France at Udina through its diplomat Chevalier d’Aranjo. Few details are available. The agreement required ratification within 60 days but no answer has yet been received from Lisbon. It is supposed the Portuguese Government has submitted the agreed terms to England for approval and this is the cause of the delay.
England has put 5,000 – 6,000 men into Portugal supposedly for its defence against the French although some Portuguese sources say the soldiers are being used to restrain the government at Lisbon and delay ratification of the peace terms with France.
England cannot tolerate any restriction on the numbers of her ships permitted to enter Portuguese ports. Such restriction is one of the agreed terms in d’Aranjo’s treaty.
Sat 10th Feb 1798
Royal Naval mutiny:
The three men sentenced to be hanged for mutiny were sent aboard HMS St George (Peard) for execution. Peard’s crew petitioned for mercy and he forwarded their petition to Admiral St Vincent for consideration. He rejected it.
Peard told his men who then resolved to seize the ship, depose the officers and liberate the condemned men. This further mutiny was set for the day prior to the proposed executions. Peard was informed of the plot and told the men he would punish the ringleaders if they persisted in it. The crew did not disperse and Peard ran in amongst them and seized the two ringleaders. He put them in irons whilst the rest of the crew looked on. The crew then submitted to discipline.
Next day the three ring-leaders in the original mutiny were hanged at the yardarm. The two new arrests were sent for Court Martial.
Sat 20th Jan 1798
Letters from a British merchant at Cadiz dated 4th – 8th July say Earl St Vincent (actually Nelson’s squadron in the Earl’s fleet) is blockading the port. Nelson has demanded a ransom equivalent to £1.2 millions ($5 millions) and is lobbing mortar bombs into Cadiz to encourage payment. Some civilians, including women and children, have been killed.
The cause of dispute is commercial. Nelson’s squadron had earlier taken two Spanish frigates Helena and Nympha but after they struck their colours, they were run ashore and coastal residents removed all the valuables. The British officers were deprived of their anticipated profits and consider it both theft and a breach of honour.
It is also the case that Spain has threatened violence against Portugal, apparently at the behest of France, whilst Britain has been spending money preparing Portugal’s defence and is her ally. One London writer supposes that the ransom of Cadiz is a means of recovering the cost of war preparations we have incurred in Portugal.
The Spanish fought back and so damaged one of our bomb vessels that the English scuttled her for fear the enemy would capture her. The English captured two Spanish gunboats and killed the commanders. They are now preparing a greater number of bomb vessels for tonight and we residents are making vigorous preparations to defend ourselves.
Sat 27th Jan 1798
The Queen has arrived at Madras from London and the Cape. She reports the seamen of the fleet at Capetown (Admiral Pringle’s fleet) mutinied for the same terms obtained by the mutineers in the home fleet. Many officers were confined by their crews and others were sent ashore.
The Admiral has told the mutineers that the terms of employment they desire have been made available to all British sailors (as a result of the mutinies in England). It was the first they knew of it.
Whilst the seamen considered the matter, a Danish ship arrived at the Cape having left London on 8th July and brought news of the end of the mutiny at the Nore and the execution of Parker and the other ringleaders. This spread through the fleet instantly and the rebellious seamen returned to discipline. Admiral Pringle says there is no need to punish anyone.
Sat 27th Jan 1798
The Batavian (Netherlands) Constitution – Talleyrand Perigord, one of the new Directors of France, has written to Noel, the French ambassador at Amsterdam, on 2nd August:
The plan of the new Constitution will secure the prosperity of Holland. It should be approved as the basic law of the country and I approve your letter to the Councillors commending it (many Dutchmen had said it was not the Ambassador’s business to express a public opinion on their Constitutional arrangements).
Talleyrand wrote that France encouraged the triumph of liberty in Netherlands and only our enemies will fault this law. “Use every opportunity to let the Dutch know the lively interest we members of the Directory take in their acceptance of this Constitution. It is our wish that the Batavian Republic obtain that form of government that may enable her to resume her rightful place amongst the nations of Europe and blend liberty with a flourishing commerce.”
The Batavian National Assembly replied that they were equally convinced of the necessity for the Constitution and the Directory might rest assured that the subject will be decided by the will of the people.
However on 12th Aug, with the votes of the Primary Assemblies only half-counted, it appeared the Constitution would be rejected. Dordrecht, Shiedam, most of Friesland and the City of Groeningen supported it. Everywhere else the property owners repudiated it. The count of votes is about 65% against (in Amsterdam it is 85% against).
The most persuasive popular complaint is that the Constitution is a step from old to new systems, incorporating features of both, which causes it to have no decided character - it satisfied no-one. The Dutch administrators suppose that such Constitutions will always be rejected if the vote is free.
This induced the French Assembly to ‘suppose’ the acceptance of the Constitution of 1791 which had justified General Bonaparte’s conduct in Italy.
There were a few supporting reasons for rejection. The concentration of executive power in five people was generally disapproved. The Orange party, who were expected to give support, withheld their votes. The clergy of all denominations, who are excluded from public service by one of the Articles, mobilised their congregations to reject it. The Roman Catholics were additionally displeased that the Protestant clergy got livings for life whilst the Protestants were displeased that they were not made the established state religion.
The vote also required each citizen to first acknowledge the sovereignty of the people and the abolition of all hereditary dignities before voting – this pre-condition kept a lot of otherwise supportive citizens, like the Orangemen, away.
Sat 27th Jan 1798
The King’s Bench decision in Smith v Shepherd increases shipowners’ liabilities for losses at sea. Pitt had promised the shipowners’ lobby to move a Bill in the Commons to redress shipowners’ concerns and restore their former less-onerous liability but the King prorogued parliament early and the shipowners were left to act on their own.
They have met in the London Tavern and agreed to amend their Bills of Lading, which already provide a defence of ‘perils of the seas’ against cargo claims, and agreed to unilaterally enlarge this to ‘all and every dangers and accidents of the seas and of navigation of whatever kind’.
Sat 27th Jan 1798
The King has approved the new dies for minting gold guineas and half-guineas. They are dated 1797. A coinage of £150,000 will be minted immediately for delivery to Bank of England in October.
Sat 27th Jan 1798
Message of the Directory to the Council, 20th Aug:
The French government is bankrupt - 63,888,967 livres fall due for payment soon on existing warrants. 21,002,790 livres is already due to be paid. This latter figure is comprised of 3 million for the troops, 4 million for food, 1 million for pensions and dividends, 1 million for constitutional salaries, 5 million for general salaries and pensions and 7 million for sundries.
The National Treasury is in deficit to 3.8 million livres which has to be made good before anything else. The Directors calculate that the balances in the Departments together with those funds still in the Treasury may suffice to discharge the deficit and leave a balance of 0.8 million for the next ten days.
The indispensable amount we need now for the maintenance of government is 8.8 million livres. The National Treasury has 10% of this; the receipts expected in the next ten days are 1 million and the departments might conceivably obtain receipts of 7 million too, although it seems on the high side.
The laws we have enacted require that the wages and food for the armed forces are preferred payments to be met before every other consideration. These amount to 7 million livres and are already in arrears. Holders of government stock expect payment of 0.9 million in interest. There are other payments we are legally bound to pay. The National Treasury says it has no additional securities to pledge for loans. France has expended all its resources.
The Directory requests the Council of 500 to consider means of re-establishing public credit. We need funds to maintain order internally and fight our enemies on the frontiers. This is urgent. Sgd Carnot President and La Garde Secy.
Sat 27th Jan 1798
The Company’s extraordinary bullion remittances to London to relieve the shortages at the Bank of England have left it short of cash too. It is a rare course of action for a commercial company:
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Wed 31st Jan 1798 Extraordinary
Scotland is disturbed by the Militia Act - there are occasional street riots. Ireland is under military government. In England the people are deeply unhappy too.
Parliament is supposed to reconvene on 2nd Nov.
Pitt says he needs an extra £40 millions to fund next year’s war. He proposes to borrow £25 millions and raise the rest in taxes.
3% consols fell to 47½/49 on the news – friendly capitalists are less numerous as they evaluate the risks and benefits of support. The opposition scents weakness and is expected to attack as soon as parliament reconvenes.
Wed 31st Jan 1798 Extraordinary
Lord Mornington (in the Irish peerage) is appointed to replace Sir John Shore as Governor-General of India. He was concurrently elevated to Baron Wellesley of Somerset in the English peerage on 10th Oct 1797.
At the same time Sir Gilbert Elliot was made Baron of Minto in County Roxburgh in recognition of his services in bringing Corsica into the British Empire. Numerous other elevations of the King’s friends were made at the same time.
Wed 31st Jan 1798 Extraordinary
Admiral Adam Duncan has engaged Admiral de Winter’s Dutch fleet off the Texel on 12th Oct. He induced them to come out by appearing to depart but then circled back and got between the Dutch fleet and the port. He attacked with 16 capital ships.
Of the Dutch fleet, 7 capital ships, 6 frigates and some transports were captured together with the Dutch Admiral and Vice-Admiral. Some other vessels were burnt. It is a disaster for the Dutch and French. Dutch commerce will be unprotected for a long time. The Dutch Admiral de Fries did not fight hard and his squadron struck early. A considerable amount of tents, stores and field equipment has been found on the captured ships. The stores were apparently intended for the West Indies.
Editor - The Dutch navy is in crisis. A few days earlier the troops on board, who were supposed to be taken with the fleet to West Indies, mutinied. Their disaffection influenced the sailors. Their officers were told to obtain their obedience or resign their commissions. Two companies of infantry refused to submit and were sent ashore and two soldiers were publicly hanged. The loyalty of the whole military force on the ships was doubtful – this may explain why the Dutch had to put to sea and why they fought so poorly.
Sat 3rd Feb 1798
London news:
At a Directors’ meeting at India House on 2nd Oct, Lord Mornington (later Lord Wellesley) was appointed Governor-General and Lt General George Harris was made President of the Madras Council on the departure of Lord Hobart.28
Letter from Liverpool 21st Aug – the last of the French troops who landed near this city have been embarked on a transport (part of the abortive expedition to Ireland)
Sat 3rd Feb 1798
30th Sept – the new Tsar Paul of Russia appears to have concluded that Bourbon attempts to regain the French throne should be abandoned. He has offered to fund Louis XVIII in 2 million Roubles to enable him to buy an estate in Russia or Germany. The Tsar has simultaneously permitted Prince Kerikatch to receive all those troops in the army of the Prince of Conde who may wish to enter Russian service.
Sat 10th Feb 1798
Treaty of Peace agreed between Charles de la Croix for France and Sr D’Aranjo D’Azevedo for Portugal, signed at Paris, 10th Aug:
Peace commences in the European and North African lands of the signatories within 15 days of exchange of the ratified treaties; in American and South African lands in 40 days, and in the East after six months.
The ports and towns of each party in the possession of the other will be restored without compensation. All prisoners will be exchanged. Both countries engage to observe a strict neutrality. Neither shall furnish the enemies of the other with succour. Both countries will permit their warships and merchantmen to enter the ports of the other. Portugal will not admit more than six belligerent warships into her major ports (plus three in the minor ports) at any one time. No privateers or prizes will be permitted to enter her ports. All sales of captured goods are prohibited.
Portugal acknowledges the new frontiers of France. The frontier between French and Portuguese Guyana is fixed on the River Calmeme and both parties have free navigation of that waterway.
An equitable treaty of commerce is to be agreed as soon as possible covering reciprocal MFN29 status for both countries and making Customs duties reciprocal as well. It is agreed France will not buy Portuguese wine and Portugal will not buy French cloth. The terms of this agreement expressly extend to the benefit of the Batavian Republic (Netherlands).
Sat 10th Feb 1798
John Adams, the American President, has addressed Congress, 6th July 1797:
This war in Europe is beginning to involve us as well. All the documents that implicate this country in the hostilities have been provided to both Houses for consideration before publication.
Senator William Blount of Tennessee has seduced Carey, the official Cherokee interpreter at the Indian factory in Tellico, to have Cherokees and Creeks, etc., make war on Spain. Blount is supposed to represent Tennessee but acts on behalf of the British. This is a high misdemeanour and inconsistent with his duty as a Senator. He is to be impeached. He had nothing to say in his own defence. He was interdicted from the Senate and $50,000 sureties required of him. After a lengthy defence embracing every historical precedent that could be found, the Senate voted to expel Blount.
Blount’s letter to Carey says “a ‘man of consequence’ has gone to London to make arrangements and expects to obtain support. I will command the expedition. Don’t mention it to any other American or Spaniard. I believe Chisholm is in South Carolina or Georgia talking with the Creeks….”
Robert Liston, the British Ambassador, denied any knowledge of the plan to attack Spanish Louisiana. The Governor General of Canada says he had no such plan either - ‘we would never invade neutral lands’, he averred.
Pickering, the US Secy of State, asked the British Ambassador if Britain planned any offensive action against Spanish possessions on American borders and whether any co-operation from any US party was expected.
Liston said he had received a proposal from Capt Chisholm for an attack on the Floridas and other Spanish lands last year. Chisholm requested a British force be sent by sea, reinforced by volunteers from the United States and the Indian tribes. Liston had rejected it as compromising US neutrality. He says he informed London where Ministers supported his decision and declined to give any countenance to the plan.
Sat 17th Feb 1798
Letter from Bonaparte to the Directory, 1st Aug:
“Our fleet sailed from Venice to Corfu where we joined four Venetian warships. We were welcomed by the people and took possession of the fort which contained 600 cannon, mostly brass. The island’s leader told me I might better understand the people of Corfu by studying a book which he presented - Homer’s Odyssey.
“The tree of liberty has been planted in every village. Every community is governed by its own municipal authority.
“The people of Sta Maura, Cephalonia and Zante also wish to join with France. The people of the southern Peloponnese (formerly Sparta) have asked that some of our ships should visited their ports. I complimented them on their Republican history.”
Sat 17th Feb 1798
AngloRussian Treaty of Commerce and Navigation of Feb 1797, done by Charles Whitworth for England and Count Alexander de Besborodko, Count Alexander Borissovitch Kourakin and Peter Soimonow for Russia (to expire in 1801):
Free commerce and navigation between the possessions of each country in Europe.
The ships of either country can enter any ports of the other where any other nation is permitted to enter.
All goods for sale or purchase to be at usual prices.
Everything that is not contraband may be traded (including Asian goods bought in England).
Both countries will adopt the same tariff for imports and exports. The tariff will not exceed the rates payable by other nations.
Domestic laws of each country are precedent.
Smuggled goods will be confiscated and the smuggler fined according to existing law.
No trade in ammunition.
No export of the new English gold coins from Britain.
No pressing of sailors or passengers in each others’ ships.
Russian ships meeting English ships on the high seas will not be harassed.
If we go to war, a year is allowed for commercial disengagement. British merchants may build, buy or rent houses where they like, except in St Petersburg, Moscow, Archangel, Riga, Neva and the ports of the Black Sea, and no Russian soldiers will be quartered on them.
Russian merchants may build, buy or rent houses in Britain.
Passports for departure will be issued on application, delayed only by the time necessary for publication in the Government Gazette.
Sun 11th March 1798 Extraordinary
HMS Alert (Skinner) arrived from Basra yesterday. She brings newspapers from England up to 10th and from Europe up to 23rd November. We find no suggestion of approaching peace:
The émigrés are again in disrepute in London and constant domestic calls for their proscription are made.
France for her part is winning the war on land and her demands at the peace negotiations remain immutable. She is again threatening invasion although she is thought unable to complete her preparations before Spring 1798. At that time she might do better than her previous attempt on the coast of Ireland. By an Order of 26th Oct, the Directory (La Reveillere Lepaux, President and La Garde, Secretary) required an Army of England be assembled on the coast with Bonaparte as CiC.
Sun 11th March 1798 Extraordinary
Peace between the French Republic and the Holy Roman Emperor, King of Hungary/ Bohemia, was ratified on 3rd Nov (this is the treaty of Campo Formio). Effectively it is the partition of Venice that makes the terms tolerable to Austria. It is another Poland with two great European powers sharing the valuable bits. The agreement provides:
Austria cedes the Pays Bas to France. That is ½ million square miles containing 2.5 million people producing a revenue of 6¼ million German florins. About half the Belgian revenue pays interest on British loans to Austria secured on Belgium. The nett revenue that Austria has formerly received is 3¼ million German florins.
Austria cedes her part of Lombardy and the Duchy of Mantua comprising nearly 200,000 sq. miles containing over a million people producing a revenue of 3½ million florins.
Austria cedes the Brisgau to the Duke of Modena – 60 sq. miles containing 155,000 people producing 200,000 florins annually (in exchange for the lands of Modena which are now transferred to Austria).
Austria permits Corfu and the other Venetian islands extending down to Zante together with the southern part of Albania to be held by France.30
In return France gives to Austria two thirds of the Venetian state she has conquered – over ½ million sq. miles containing 1.8 million people producing 5 millions in revenue. Istria, Dalmatia, Venice, Verona and the Adriatic islands of Venice are ceded to Austria who becomes master of the Adriatic. Austria loses territorially and financially overall but this is mitigated by the partition of the Venetian Republic which permits a concentration of Austrian possessions in northern Italy and the savings flowing therefrom. Trade between the Po Valley and Hungary will improve.
Lombardy, Milan and Mantua are united in the newly created Cisalpine Republic which both signatories recognise. This Republic will have 240 Deputies meeting at Milan. It has a population of over 3 millions making it potentially equivalent to Venice and unequivocally removes that old state from the ranks of European powers.
All requisitions on the peoples of the exchanged lands are to be ended; persons and property to be respected. Present holders of land are responsible for all outstanding mortgages on the land (i.e. France assumes the Belgian debt to London). Residents wishing to remove from the Cisalpine Republic or the lands newly made Austrian have three months to do so. There will be free navigation of the rivers and canals forming the new frontier - no Customs collections or warships are permitted on those rivers.
A further negotiation is being held at Rastadt to deal with the loose ends and Bonaparte expects to be one of the French representatives.
Sun 11th March 1798 Extraordinary
The peace treaty between France and Portugal was not ratified in time by Lisbon and Sr D’Aranjo d’Azevedo has been expelled from France. The failure became public when the Portuguese Queen assigned control of her seaports to England. The likelihood of resumed hostilities in Iberia is high. Wherever French armies go they spread their ideas of democracy. They will embarrass the Spanish King through whose lands they must pass to get at Lisbon.
Sun 11th March 1798 Extraordinary
France is outraged by the information in the Address of American President Adams to Congress. The US ambassador to Paris has been called-in to demand the countries restore their relative positions of 1778. If he does not offer to do so, he also will likely be required to leave France.
Sun 11th March 1798 Extraordinary
Admiral Duncan, who destroyed the Dutch fleet off the Texel, is elevated to the peerage. Part of his fleet was Russian and, for that, he is also enrolled in the Russian peerage. The first couple of Dutch broadsides were terribly effective but after that, Duncan got his rate of fire up to three broadsides to every one of the Dutch. This was an early opportunity to use the telegraph we have built from Sheerness to London. On 20th Oct it reported the arrival of Duncan’s fleet at the Nore in minutes.
The 3% consols improved to 50 on the news.
Sun 11th March 1798 Extraordinary
The 3% consols on 10th Nov were trading at 49. The 5% government annuities are 72. Bank of England shares were 119.
Sat 17th March 1798
The Redacteur (the official Paris newspaper) on the proposed invasion of England:
Only the hideous English and insulting Portuguese remain to be conquered. The celebrated expedition of General Hoche has shown the British that we can plant the tricolor on their soil (part of Hoche’s force landed near Liverpool). The King of England will be shocked when Bonaparte arrives in the Thames. George III and his ministerial advisers are hated by all France.
Sat 17th March 1798
Bonaparte sent Monge to the Directory to present the Austrian Treaty (Campo Formio) for their ratification. He addressed the Legislature on 31st Oct. Part of his speech was:
‘The King of Macedonia, ‘a small and barbarous nation’, diminished the liberty of Greece. The tyrants of India do likewise and they have greater financial power than the Macedonian King. England wields the dishonourable weapon of corruption. France cannot co-exist with England whilst it asserts its commercial hegemony.’
The President of France, La Reveillere Lepaux, replied:
‘The English are a generous people but their present government is odious. They have assumed control of the seas and spread their criminal activities globally. The British thirst for gold has brought death and destruction to Asia. In Europe and America we see the effects of their venal policies. The British ministry debases every government with bribes and then assumes an insulting haughtiness towards them. All civil discord in the World is attributable to England. It authored a coalition against France and financed internal insurrection against our government, Frenchman against Frenchman, forcing us to take stronger measures against our own people. Thus they engendered our eternal hatred.’
Sun 11th March 1798 Extraordinary
The King’s speech on reconvening parliament on 2nd Nov was remarkable for the absence of the liberal Whigs from the House. Fox and his liberal group will not come to parliament this session as he is unable to influence the ministry’s overwhelming majority in the House. It seems Sheridan and Charles Grey likewise have left as none of them attended the King’s speech or the subsequent debate. Britain is now openly ruled by an oligarchy.31
The King spoke of his taking ‘every step’ to conclude peace but the French were evasive, pretentious and ambitious and allowed nothing to be done. England ardently desires peace but is compelled to persevere in the struggle, he said.
The King noted that, throughout the war so far, British industry has thrived, British commerce has increased and the national revenue as well. “Our resources are completely adequate to the task although some temporary sacrifices are required. Our civil and religious establishments are blessings that can be preserved only by enforcing obedience to laws. You must maintain our Constitution.”
Sat 17th March 1798
Bootle MP has proposed thanks to the King for his Address:
We have destroyed the maritime strength of our enemies, annihilated their commerce, captured more prizes than ever before, assumed the control of the seas and dispersed the fear of invasion. The few remaining countries doing international trade do it under our direction and control. Its wonderful.
Drummond MP (and India Company Director) seconded Bootle:
Our resources are enormous; France’s resources are exhausted, he said. The moderation of the French government has ended and Directors and Legislators are now banished without trial (the fate of the Royalist conspirators that England financed to win elections in the Primary Assemblies and replace the government). France is again a tyranny. Their revolution has enslaved the people and dispelled all hope for peace. They have not only sought to establish secure frontiers at the expense of their neighbours but have demanded we relinquish all our conquests as a term of peace. Why should we co-operate - we have the money, they have none. They refuse to make peace reasonably – we will fight them to a standstill.
Brian Edwards said he was an independent member.32 He was alarmed at the blood sacrifice and the money cost of war. The British people generally were discontented with the war. Ireland was in rebellion and was kept tranquil only by martial law and continuous oppression. The war had so far cost Britain £200 millions and 200,000 lives. The King talks of wanting peace but he is not conciliatory; he no longer mentions ‘indemnity for the past and security for the future’ which were our concerns in former years. This has become a war for the ultimate destruction of either France or England.
We have made two attempts at peace. When Malmesbury (Harris) was first sent to Paris he was a new MP and believed in Pitt’s sincerity (laughter). He had then discovered that the sine qua non in his instructions (the restitution of Flanders) was solely to preserve the income of the Austrian Emperor (who had hocked the province to British capitalists). In the circumstances it was morally ‘mean’ that Malmesbury should again be chosen for the second negotiation. Edwards thought it unsurprising that the French suspected us of bad faith when we sent the same unsatisfactory chap back. They produced their own sine qua non of secure frontiers and no progress could be made.33
Sir Francis Baring has told the House (last session) that all British conquests are not worth a single campaign - the Cape, Ceylon etc would all cost us more in security and administration costs than they would produce to us in commercial profit. Its the same with the West Indian islands - Grenada and St Vincent were ceded to us in 1763 and we never knew what to do with them. The old French landowners incited the slaves against us and Governor Holmes was assassinated because we had no place in the peoples’ hearts. Santo Domingo is simply too big to occupy. General Simcoe offered to conquer this island with 7,000 men but it turned-out that his intended method meant the island would have needed repopulating afterwards.
In all the ex-French colonies we find the populations opposed to us and this makes them unprofitable, yet we continue to sacrifice our people to make conquests and the sole advantage is the profit from the sales of seized goods and ships.
Edwards wished to know the precise grounds on which the peace negotiations were ended. The French said our man Wickham in Switzerland had organised and funded the Royalist coup d’etat. This charge had never been disavowed by Pitt or Dundas. The weight of taxation on the British people is now affecting the middle class as well as the poor. Parliament had been disgraced by the elevation to the peerage of men unqualified by ability or service. The House is deserted by those who questioned and criticised the Minister. Edwards did not know Fox but he recognised that, had his advice been followed, we would not now be in this invidious position. It was Fox who had prevented war with Russia, he recalled.
Sir Horace Mann said that the absent liberals had formerly demanded peace negotiations and offered the ministry their wholehearted support if the French refused to treat. Now the French had done so and the liberals had seceded.
At the end of the American War of Independence, the House of Brunswick lost a large part of their European domains for having supported their relative, the King of England. Now a similar misplaced confidence on the part in the present Minister appeared likely to have the same effect. On that first occasion, Lord North lost all respect and authority and his India Bill was thrown out. The India Company is a commercial concern but it now had to administer the Cape and Ceylon where little revenue has been found. The interest on the national debt was now £16 millions a year and the extra colonies would cost £4 millions a year to maintain – how is this enormous charge to be paid?
Unless Pitt was willing to really consider peace, the middle class would be extinguished leaving only the rich as owners of property. If the war continues for 3-4 years more, the annual rental of land will have to rise to 50% of its production value. We have been fighting for 5 years without any realistic prospect of victory. If ministers cannot make peace, they should request the King to appoint others who can, Edwards thought.
Sat 17th March 1798
Redacteur, Letter from Ajaccio, Corsica, 3rd Oct:
Émigrés and Royalists from the army of the Prince of Conde have fomented a revolution against the Government of this new British colony. On 14th Sept the authorities exposed the entire plot - the rebels had organised a provisional government, enacted laws and distributed jobs.
About 800 freedom fighters opposed the rebels and marched against them on 20th Sept. The priests, who are politicising the people against the British colonial government, were at first disposed to fight but after a few shots they all fled.
Sat 24th March 1798
House of Lords, 8th Nov – Admiral Duncan (the Bombay Governor’s relative) has made his first appearance at the Lords today in his new incarnation as Viscount Duncan. He was introduced by Lords Hood and Newark. He was thanked for defeating the Dutch and suppressing a mutiny.
Sat 7th April 1798
Lord Liverpool has mentioned in a letter to his son that British commerce is immensely improved by the war.
Sat 14th April 1798
Redacteur – Some negotiators have arrived from America. Their cause was defended in the French legislature by Emmanuel Pastoret in the 3rd year of the Republic but his oratory inflamed the legislators. We will consider facts:
The dispute concerns Jay’s Treaty of Commerce concluded in London on 1st Nov 1794. It was ratified by the US Senate, except one article, on 24th June 1795.
Briefly, there are two parties in America – the English party, comprised of the merchants and the bulk of the civil service and legislature; and the French party which comprises the farming population. The farmers love our revolutionary principles and Liberty; the others recall they owe their existence to England. France contributed to American independence and the Treaty of Paris of 1783 contains British acknowledgement of that independence within the territorial limits mentioned in the Treaty.
Before the current war there were disputes. English troops crossed the frontiers indicated in the Treaty and carried off some negroes belonging to America. Some American ships were seized and pillaged by the British on the pretence they traded with French islands in West Indies. The protests of American shipowners increased as this fleet of lost ships increased. American Legislators spoke of war unless their grievances were redressed but the Federal Government preferred talk and sent Jay to London. La Chronique asserts that on Jay’s arrival he was surrounded by ministers, courtiers and nobles and assailed with British grievances and, wishing to show himself as reasonable, he sought for a Treaty of Peace with England to resolve all differences.
It is in this treaty that we see the first re-appearance of American anti-European and pro-English terms since the War of Independence, some of which terms violate the Treaty of Alliance and Commerce that France made with Franklin, Deane and Lee on 6th February 1778. At commencement of the present war we sought to renew the alliance with America but she eluded our proposal. Contrarily, America solicited closer commercial connections with England.
We therefore see France in 1778 lavishing blood and treasure on America’s behalf and obtaining victory in the Treaty of Paris; and America in 1794 making a most favourable treaty with England in London at the time that country was prosecuting one of its most violent and unjust wars against France and French access to London (to monitor the terms of the agreement) was constrained. The treaties appear intended to disaffect America from France. Here are the terms Jay accepted:
The first eight articles fix limits. The English posts within America have boundaries around them. The precise size is not addressed but each represents a focus of British influence and government within the United States. The English receive free navigation of all the rivers and lakes of America. The Americans do not have reciprocity here – English rivers can only be entered conditionally. England is given a share of the lands east of the Mississippi.
The 9th article says Americans and Britons owning lands straddling the frontier shall enjoy the privileges of the natives of either country. It follows that America will have Englishmen owning lands in American territory.
In 1778 France granted America everything they requested including exemption from escheat, to which all other foreigners dying in France are liable, and only reserved a right to control excessive emigration. In this new Treaty nothing is reserved. The children and grandchildren of these bi-national landowners may increase to infinity. 20 years ago the English were not much respected in America. They were distrusted. At that time they could not be kept far enough away from American ports and frontiers. Times have changed.
The 10th article addresses war between the parties. In that case, funds placed by individuals in the banks of the other cannot be sequestrated (there are extensive British shareholdings in American banks). The articles says confidence between individuals should not be weakened by either government. This is a philosophical statement. We should recall how the British recently ‘respected’ the funds that Dutch merchants had placed in British banks. The Dutch are good friends of America. How did America, which has neither armies nor navies, surrender this last means of control on the conduct of England. Do they deserve independence when they hazard it so easily?
The 12th article binds Americans to not export sugar, coffee, cocoa or cotton from any American port to any part of the World during the present war and for 2 years after, whether these items are the produce of the French, Spanish or English islands. Cocoa is only produced in Spanish islands, American itself produces cotton. Americans are limited to exporting to British lands in ships of less than 70 tons. This 12th article shows a predilection for England. How can America export any of her cumbrous produce – timber and the like - in 70 ton ships? Against whom are these trade restraints directed in general?
In the 9th article of the FrancoAmerican Treaty of Alliance of 1778, America guaranteed French possessions. It is well known that hitherto America has not been able to perform this undertaking and France has excused her but the Jay Treaty is directly opposed to France. The new arrangements facilitate supplies to the British West Indian islands and frustrate those of the French West Indian islands - will American ships not supply and provision the British occupiers of Martinique? The 12th article also postpones decision whether ‘free ships make free goods’ for the duration of the war and two years after (i.e. does the neutrality of the ship’s flag protect the cargo as well). In three recent treaties (France/America, France/Holland and Prussia/Sweden) the ‘free ships’ doctrine is affirmed. Clearly this 9th article is prejudicial to France. The English may steal French goods in American ships, particularly the grain supply that prevents scarcity here, whilst the French, Dutch, Prussians and Swedes may not take English goods in American ships. It would have been an honourable act for the American Senate to disavow the treaty on this article alone.
The 13th article allows American ships to trade with British colonies in the East but all the cargo must be landed in American ports. No carrying trade is allowed. This is a surrender of that freedom of navigation that the Americans have formerly so vociferously claimed. Thus America rejects all the engagements previously made to her old friends.
The 14th – 17th articles regulate trade with their new friend.
The 18th article enumerates all types of contraband. This list includes several of the articles that were routinely considered free goods in earlier treaties – wood for ship-building, tar, pitch, copper plates, flax, cordage, and anything else that is used in the construction of ships. This means that America can only supply these articles to Britain and not to France, Holland, Prussia or Sweden.
The 21st article says Americans cannot serve in armies or navies hostile to England. Mr Jay might here have reasonably inserted a restraint on England pressing Americans to serve in her fleet but he did not do so.
The 24th and 25th articles are complete violations of the 17th article of the Treaty of 1778. The earlier treaty allowed the warships and privateers of both countries to convey wherever they like the ships and cargoes of an enemy without paying fees to the Admiralty or Judiciary i.e. the prizes could not be seized or detained or inspected. This was a privilege shared between France and America and was the main evidence of the goodwill of America for France. This was a time when Americans wanted to keep the English as far from their coasts as possible.
In 1794 Grenville asked Jay for MFN status and the same article was inserted word for word in the new treaty. However Jay recognised that France would inevitably protest this infraction of the 1778 treaty and he introduced an ameliorating restriction – ‘nothing herein will operate contrary to existing treaties’. This is an inadequate mechanism to paper-over the chasm – if the English bring a French prize into an American port and it is received, it is a breach of 1778; if it is not received, it is a breach of 1794. The particular French objection to this article is that it appears to be a free and voluntary concession by America - it looks like bad faith.
On this review Emmanuel Pastoret’s defence of the 1794 treaty in the Legislature is suspicious and the conduct of French negotiators towards the Americans should be made predictable.34
Sat 14th April 1798
The Turks have been misleading us. Citizen Beauchamp has discovered the Black Sea is smaller than we all hitherto thought. He fixed the principal points around the coast and ascertained the real dimensions with little effort. He is actually travelling via Constantinople and Baghdad to Muscat where he is appointed Consul but made this side trip out of curiosity.35
Sat 28th April 1798
Burke’s letter to Lord Portland, 29th Sept 1793:
A general war against Jacobinism is the only chance of saving Europe from revolution. Lauderdale’s reaction to Lord George Gordon’s actions reveals these liberal Whigs, in the plausible name of peace, will deliver us to a confederation of Jacobins centred on France. Coke in Norfolk is deploying his massive property in spreading disaffection to the war.
A large part of the aristocracy is promoting democracy and undermining the property system to which we have hitherto ascribed.
These revolutionary doctrines are producing increasing mischief. We should regard this Jacobin War as simply just another war for trade and territory and a threat to the balance of political power between European countries.
Wed 2nd May 1798 Extraordinary
Stock report, late Dec - Bank stock 116 (the Bank of England and the India Company are both highly profitable, the former due to the increased issue of debt securities, Exchequer Bills and paper money in circulation, the latter due to its monopoly trade, increased territorial revenue and new monopoly on the spice trade); 3% consols are at 49; 4% consols 59; 5% 73.
Wed 2nd May 1798 Extraordinary
The King has made several new elevations in the Irish peerage. Our former Governor General of India Sir John Shore is now Baron Teignmouth.36
Wed 2nd May 1798 Extraordinary
A ship which left Leghorn on 14th Jan 1798 reports that one of the Pope’s troops killed General Defour, French commander of the forces occupying Tuscany, and this has occasioned a riot. Bonaparte’s brother, who is French Consul here, has fled. The Pope died shortly afterwards and Cardinal Mattei was elected as replacement.
Wed 2nd May 1798 Extraordinary
The Knights Templar government of Malta has agreed to submit to British rule and an English fleet of 30 sail has taken possession of the island.37
Wed 2nd May 1798 Extraordinary
The situation at Genoa is unsettled. Many citizens wish the town be surrendered to the Emperor like Venice. Leghorn is tranquil. A plague is spreading across Corsica.
Two French frigates arrived at Malta reporting that Corfu is disturbed. The Republicans had stripped the Greek churches of their gold and jewel offerings to St Spiridion. This caused the residents to call in their Albanian neighbours and an insurrection is said to have resulted in the death of many of the French. The crews and passengers on the two frigates are the only French who survived.
Sat 5th May 1798
London, 8th Dec – the Austrian troops at Rastadt have been withdrawn three leagues from the town which was then declared neutral. The Congress expects France to maintain its insistence on sovereignty of the left bank of the Rhine and to divide those lands into Departments in the Republican style. The Congress was convened on 25th Nov to discuss all matters in contention between Austria, its German states and France.
Wed 2nd May 1798 Extraordinary
Letter from the Diet at Rastadt, 11th Dec 1797:
The Congress between the German states of the Austrian Empire and the French that is meeting to apply the terms of Campo Formio is in uproar. The French demanded the cession of Mayence (Mainz) and Ehrenbreitstein and some posts along the Rhine. The ambassadors were all shocked. Then they heard that a French army under General Lefevre is already outside Mayence and its surrender was required before 15th Dec. The Germans protested to no effect and have called upon the Emperor’s ministers Metternich and Lehrbach for help.
Sat 5th May 1798
Portugal has sent a shipment of Indian diamonds valued at £385,000 to Paris as an earnest that it is really does not want war with France.
The Queen is distressed by accusations from Paris that she delayed ratification of the peace treaty at the behest of the English.
Sat 5th May 1798
Secretary at War William Windham’s letter to all Colonels of Regiments, dated 20th Nov 1797, indicating the new ministerial policy of economy:
Officers of regiments who act as paymasters to their men have been detrimental to discipline and very expensive. All such appointments will cease on 24th Dec 1798.
By a special military commission, the King has approved properly qualified officers to act as paymasters commencing 25th Dec. The new paymasters will rank as Captains but will not be required to perform military duty and will not be eligible for promotion. They will get 15/- per day and the usual baggage allowance and forage money that Captains without companies receive, plus £20 a year for stationery. They will have an enlisted man as clerk who receives the rank and pay of a Sergeant. Please select your candidates from the half-pay list or from amongst the officers of reduced regiments.
If you recommend an existing paymaster he will have to sell his regimental commission to the officer succeeding him. The Secretary at War requires a personal security of the candidate in £2,000 and two sureties of £1,000 each. These sums will be forfeit if malversion or neglect of duty is established or if he is found to have paid for the job.
Paymasters will thereafter produce monthly Pay Lists for the regiment and authenticate them by signature. If the regiment is serving abroad the Paymaster is responsible for negotiating his own Bills at the best local rates.
Sat 5th May 1798
Proclamation of the Directory, 21st Nov 1797:
We have fought innumerable battles and obtained innumerable victories but it still remains for France to reduce its most cunning enemy.
We would prefer peace but during this year England has led astray all the cabinets of Europe. She has loudly proposed peace whilst secretly fomenting war. England is not fighting just France. She is conspiring against the whole world. Ask the Americans who are their real rulers; ask the unfortunate Indians who languish under the tyranny of the India Company. But we Europeans are the most unfortunate.
Destructive war has been fought across this continent, a million of us have died, a fortune has been dissipated and misery and despair have spread across the land. The English government is immune to all this. George III has just addressed parliament ‘Our revenues have continued highly productive, Our national industry has been extended and Our commerce has surpassed its former limits’ he says. We suppose the King of England tells the truth, in which case, this should be a lesson to us all. Can England be concerned with your problems when she gathers the fruits of them – she is nourished by your calamities, she prospers from your distress, she accumulates treasure from tears and blood and fattens on plunder. It is unsurprising that England promotes war – it is the means of her enrichment. Yet she dares to speak of French avarice. This is the country that devastated Santo Domingo and took the colonies of her ally Netherlands by trick,38 yet she speaks to Europe of the greed of France.
The principles of France to other nations are well enough known to not require recital. France takes her frontiers from nature. In this respect she has repaired the fault of monarchy. She disdains conquests that do not tend to immutable frontiers. She never oppresses weaker states. She does not despoil her allies. She is faithful to her friends and punishes her enemies. None of the French ministers hate England but every man remembers Toulon, Dunkirk, Quiberon Bay and La Vendee. They detest cruelty, perfidy and the Machiavellian Pitt and deplore English blindness to what those people have become in the eyes of the World.
There are several options open to us to avenge humanity. The simplest is an invasion of England. The ability of our armies and the justice of our cause assure us of success. We have just seen a demonstration at Lille of how little the English ministry wants peace. If she ends the war she will be unable to continue the transfer of wealth from all the World, including her own people, to her ministers, her King, her aristocrats and her bankers.
The discovery of the British-financed attempt to overthrow our government on 18th Fructidor has united the Directory and the two Legislative Councils with all the French people to bring an end to this interference. Our armies are irresistible - General Bender is a prisoner at Luxembourg, General Wurmser at Mantua – we cannot fail.39
This proclamation is to be read in every Commune and in all the divisions of the army and navy. Sgd Reveilliere Lepeaux President and Lagarde Secretary.
Sat 19th May 1798
Paris, 9th Dec – Bonaparte has arrived. He refused an honour guard and requested every ceremonial be dispensed with. He insisted he wished to be known merely as a private citizen. The Directory however demanded a ceremony yesterday at the Luxembourg at which Bonaparte was as incognito as possible.
He arrived in simple clothes having walked to the venue via back streets accompanied by Generals Berthier, Joubert and Championnet. The hall of the Luxembourg was decorated with all the military trophies and standards of the enemies he had conquered in Italy. At noon the members of the Directory entered. The ministers for war and for foreign affairs introduced Bonaparte to Barras. Bonaparte presented the ratified copy of the peace treaty of Campo Formio concluded with the Austrian Emperor. He said:
“France had to fight Kings to obtain freedom. It had to overcome tradition and prejudice to preserve its Constitution. Religion, feudalism and royalty have controlled Europe for ages. The peace now concluded with the Holy Roman Empire commences the Age of Representative Government. You have succeeded in organising France on its natural limits.
Now the two most beautiful parts of Europe (France and Austria), the celebrated birthplaces of most of the great men in the arts and sciences, will become the foundation of Liberty. I deliver to you the Treaty signed at Campo Formio. Peace secures liberty. Once our organic laws are perfected, all Europe will be free.”
Everyone was very enthusiastic and the President’s extravagant reply went on for ages. Bonaparte is idolised by the French people. Berthier and Angereau are obsequious to him.
Sat 26th May 1798
Seventeen wagons have arrived at Paris on 12th Thermidor bearing some of the objets d’art collected from the Italian towns. They include Raphael’s St Cecilia and his cartoon of the School of Athens; Corregio’s St Jerome, a great number of Guerchinos, a fine Parmegiano, 650 designs and medals and many books. They are all in perfect order. A third convoy departed Rome on 22nd Prairial and contains mainly statues (full list in the paper) and numerous chests of books. It has just passed through Leghorn.
Sat 9th June 1798
The crew of the frigate HMS Hermione has mutinied. Three days out of Cape Nichola Mole, the Captain ordered a party aloft to tend to the mizzen topsail. Whilst ordering them to do something difficult, two of the men fell down to the deck. The Captain was unapologetic and scolded the survivors when they descended. The crew were discontented and become taciturn. Next day the mutiny commenced. The 1st Lieutenant boldly remonstrated with them. He was killed and thrown overboard. The Captain fled to his cabin and locked himself in but the crew broke in, killed him and threw him away too. They then killed many other officers and sailed the ship to La Guira under Spanish colours. They handed-over the ship to the port authorities and Spain has now sent it to sea with a Spanish crew.
Sat 2nd June 1798
West Indian news - The crew of HMS Marie Antoinette has also mutinied and assumed the control of their ship.
Sat 2nd June 1798
The King of Prussia has died. He aligned his country close to Russia and the French distrusted him. They are reinforcing their armies on the left bank of the Rhine and in Holland.
Russian and Hanoverian Electors of the German states are banned from attending the Congress at Rastadt which is applying the terms of Campo Formio.40
Wed 6th June 1798 Extraordinary
London Editorial - French policy is continually professed to be moderate. They try to lead the neutral powers of Europe against England. France has asked all neutrals to close their ports to English ships. Merchants in the great centres of neutral trade at Hamburg and Copenhagen are threatened with commercial loss. French policy is to deny the English any market for their goods – they cannot prevent us accumulating all the World’s goods in London but they will try to stop us selling them into continental Europe.
The Directory has issued a Proclamation declaring all British goods in neutral ships liable to seizure. All British goods found in France are also liable to confiscation. Sealed orders have gone out to the municipalities detailing the procedure to be adopted for confiscation of English products. There is a considerable stock of British goods in warehouses at Rue Neuve de Luxembourg, the Palais Égalité, Rue St Honore and St Denis. The proscription applies to all kinds of cloth, metalwork, leather, glass, crockery and sugar.
Preparations for an invasion of England continue. France is constructing a huge number of flat-bottomed boats to carry the army across the Channel. The invasion flotilla is being assembled at Brest. In England voluntary public contributions to the defence of the islands are flowing-in which, with the resources provided by parliament, are sufficient to protect us.
The Directory has approved Monge’s plan for the invasion. This requires the flat-bottomed boats be rafted together with an external parapet on which will be artillery and furnaces for heating cannon balls. Each construction navigates by sails and oars and carries 10,000 men. 30 of these immense structures will carry the 300,000 men of the French Army of England across the channel. The master of a neutral ship here says he was in St Malo recently and saw a transport vessel that was ¼ mile long with a citadel at the centre covered in hides. A second transport was under construction nearby which was ¾ mile long.
Wed 6th June 1798 Extraordinary
European news from the London papers:
The government of the 13 cantons of Switzerland is ended. So is the Helvetic Confederacy. In their place is the Helvetian Republic which will have 40 districts and a capital at Lucerne. A well-known Swiss businessman at Hamburg says General Menard arrived at Pays de Vau saying he had no means of providing for his troops and could not vouch for their good conduct. An immediate subscription of 800,000 livres was raised and given him. The officials of the Cantons declined to declare war and instead submitted to the creation of the Helvetian Republic. The French expect to receive 8 million livres from the officers of the new Republic. Some violence has occurred in Berne.
The Congress at Rastadt continues to sit. The French have taken Mainz to press their case for the new frontier.
The ratification of the Franco-Portuguese treaty may by now have occurred. If Portugal does not ratify it, she is threatened with invasion through Spain.
The Romans have been beguiled by a series of prophecies all predicting that Pius VI will be the last Pope. They expect a democracy will be erected on the Papal States. The violation of the French ambassador’s jurisdiction and the assassination of a French General in Rome are the pretexts for the removal of the Pope from all traces of temporal authority. He permitted his assassins to pursue Republicans into the French embassy (Joseph Bonaparte is ambassador). It is similar to the pretext used against Venice. The foreign ambassadors at Rome have long employed assassins to effect their policies - the Spanish ambassador Bravi di Spagna employed a huge number who killed a hundred people. The Pope may be obliged to resume the modesty and simplicity of the original Christians.
Sat 9th June 1798
The core of the oligarchy ruling England with the King is:
1/ William Pitt,
2/ William Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland as Home Secretary,
3/ George John, 2nd Earl Spencer commanding the Admiralty,
4/ William Wyndham, Lord Grenville responsible for foreign affairs and
5/ William Windham War Minister.
Sat 9th June 1798
The traders and merchant bankers of London have met at the Bank of England to organise a subscription for the war effort. A committee was formed comprised of Directors of the Bank and India Company and all the Aldermen of the City. Bosanquet addressed the meeting on the need to raise funds against an implacable foe.
When the subscription book was opened The King paid £20,000. Boyd (of Boyd Benfield & Co) signed-up for £3,000. A & B Goldsmid signed-up to pay £1,500 annually. Angerstein paid £2,000. Each cabinet minister will pay £2,000. A total of £46,524 was quickly raised. A further £20,000 was later pledged at the Mansion House. By Friday night the promised subscriptions totalled £512,000 and yesterday a further £100,000 was added, mostly from aristocrats.
Sat 9th June 1798
The 43 survivors of the 48th regiment have returned from Santo Domingo. That was formerly a regiment of 650 men.
Sat 9th June 1798
The Directory has explained the 80 million livre loan it is raising by public subscription for the invasion of England. It is comprised of 80,000 bearer bonds of 1,000 livres each. Bonaparte has bought 25 bonds.
Monge’s invasion rafts are enormous – one is 700 yards long and 350 yards wide. The floor is 6-7 balks deep. English prisoners are amongst the workers making these rafts. One escaped from Brest on a Danish ship and reports 16 warships are victualling for departure from that port. Over 300 gunboats have been fitted out.
Sat 9th June 1798
The Congress at Rastadt is imperceptibly edging towards a solution. There are 117 Ministers, Plenipotentiaries and Counsellors attending. It involves every European country except one – England, which government excluded itself. The participants are trying to construct better boundaries throughout Europe to ensure peace. Professor Busch has made the following proposals which appear to meet most expectations:
George III to be removed from the ownership of Hanover;
Prussia gets Bremen, Verdun, Brunswick Wolstenbuttel, Hamburg and most of Hanover;
The rest of Hanover goes to Denmark;
all the ecclesiastical estates in the German Empire to be secularised;
the Rhine to be opened to free navigation;
the new French frontier will be its left bank;
the Dutch border to be straightened;
Austria to surrender its Polish seizures to Prussia and transfer part of Silesia to Bavaria, and
The territory ceded to France will be divided into 8 new departments.
Sat 9th June 1798
Dispatch No 18 from Joseph Bonaparte (Ambassador to the Pope) to Ch. Talleyrand Perigord (Foreign Minister), 31st Dec:
I have left Rome. On 26th Dec three people approached me to report a revolution that was to commence that night. The public was opposed and anything might have happened. They wanted to know if France would support them.
I told them I was accredited to the Papal court and could not foment revolution in Italy. I merely observe the passing scene and report to Paris. I told them that peace had been established and it would be unfortunate to disturb it. I told them not to visit me again. They accordingly promised that no insurrection would occur just yet.
Later I heard from the Marchioness Massimi that four of the leaders of this insurrection were in fact Papal spies who purport to foment revolution as a means of identifying dissidents. The seduced people gathered at the Villa Medici and were immediately surrounded by the Pope’s troops. They had a sackful of French Republican cockades. I went to the Pope’s secretary of state (Cardinal Doria) and told him I did not oppose, indeed demanded, the arrest of the dissidents unless they were found amongst the French and Italian members of my embassy, of whom I had eight. I told him there were six revolutionaries who had taken refuge in my embassy and that, if he wanted them, I would arrange for their surrender. I then returned to my residence (Palais Corsini) where General Duphot, Adjutant General Sherlock and two French painters were to dine with me.
We awaited the arrival of the embassy secretaries who were engaged in making a list of those people entitled to wear the French cockade. I wished to provide this list to the Cardinal (Secretary of State) before dinner so he would know who was authorised to wear them. The porter then said there were 20 people outside who said they would force their way in if they were not welcomed. They had many cockades and were distributing them to passers-by requesting they make the calls ‘vive la Republique; vive le peuple Romain’. One of these people was an artist who had been recommended to me in Paris by your predecessor. He was one of the three who had first reported the proposed revolution to me. He said to me ‘we are free but we demand the support of France’. I asked him to leave or he would be ejected. He was shocked.
By this time the crowd had forced its way into the embassy and amongst them were several known Papal government spies. They were the ones most loudly calling ‘vive la republique’ etc. I decided to remonstrate with the mob. I put on my ambassadorial robes and went down to meet them. I heard a long discharge of muskets and saw a cavalry detachment had ridden into the embassy garden at full gallop and was firing through the three great porticos of the palace. A company of fusiliers followed the cavalry. All the rioters had assembled in the courtyard and many had been shot.
When the soldiers saw me they stopped and I asked to see their leader. I asked on whose authority they had entered French territory. They started to withdraw and concurrently the mob started to advance. The mob had stilettos and a few pistols. My companions and I drew our swords to oppose them. At this moment the Pope’s fusiliers fired a volley and some people on the edge of the crowd were injured. I advanced on the fusiliers with my companions, intent on stopping them firing again and getting them off French land. General Duphot walked amongst the bayonets of the fusiliers and directed then back to the Septiminiana Gate where one soldier shot him in the chest. He managed to rise and support himself with his sabre. Then a second shot put him down. The soldiers then fired some fifty rounds into his body.
I got a passport after midnight that night and left Rome at dawn. No Roman official visited the embassy or explained the course of events. These impious officials of Rome have assassinated Basseville and might have done the same to me. They have failed to protect our embassy and permitted the murder of a brave French general. I believe Rome should be punished. This government is absolute and rash; when caught it is cowardly and submissive.
Sat 9th June 1798
Letter from the Pope’s secretary of state (Cardinal J Doria Pamphilli) to the Papal ambassador at Paris (Marquis Massini), Rome, 28th Dec 1797:
The French ambassador has been insulted and a French General killed. You must explain that these events were entirely beyond our control or foresight. Offer no satisfaction but ask the Directory what they think is an appropriate response. Neither the Pope nor his Court can be consoled until they know how to satisfy the Directorate.
The Directorate will be concerned at the loss of a valuable citizen but they will also recognise our own distress at this occurrence. We have complete confidence in and rely upon the judgement of the Directory. If you are successful in this you will receive the Pope’s favour.
Sat 9th June 1798
Talleyrand to Joseph Bonaparte, 11th Jan – The Pope has offered a reparation worthy of French greatness. Whilst you have revealed nothing of your personal conduct on that infamous day, you have apparently supported French honour.
Sat 16th June 1798
Brief news from Europe:
The French have obtained a loan from the Hanse towns of £1.4 millions. They have also solicited 40,000 sacks of flour from the King of Naples.
The cause of the distrust between France and the Swiss cantons is still not apparent but may relate to the traitorous activities of Barthelemy which commenced in Switzerland. The French have recently proposed the abolition of the Helvetic Federation and the abandonment of aristocratic principles in the Constitutions of some Cantons. The Swiss said they will undertake their own reform. This promising start ended in violence on 5th March and Berne was occupied by the French.
The death of General Duphot, that hero of the armies of the Pyrenees and Italy, has caused a French army to march on Rome. Whether the French grievance is adequate for an invasion is arguable but no-one in Europe will regret a revolution in Rome.
The Queen of Portugal is nervous. Her hopes for a bought peace (the gift of diamonds to Paris) have been shattered by a Spanish agreement with France to permit the passage of 50,000 French troops through their country.
Admiral Masseredo took the Spanish fleet of 22 capital ships and some frigates out of Cadiz on 6th March. His purpose was unknown but Admiral Lord St Vincent was at Lisbon and, on hearing of the move, took 14 ships-of-the-line out, sailed round to Cadiz and chased the Spanish back into port.
General Bonaparte has visited the French coast to review progress of the invasion fleet and army. This threat is uniting the English. The voluntary subscription of the city merchants and bankers to fund the war has reached £1.5 millions. 3% consols have risen to 51½.
Sat 16th June 1798
London report from Switzerland – It seems the French are occupying the lands of Berne because Bernese troops under Colonel Gross first occupied the town of Arau and acted against the democrats there. France complains that 24 patriots have been imprisoned at Soleure concerning which the French minister at Basel, Mengaud, warned the officials of Berne to avoid outraging French opinion. France has an army of 30,000 in Switzerland which has now extended the area it occupies to Arlburg, Zossingen and Arau. A few Bernese representatives have gone to Basel to negotiate with the French minister there. They are determined to reach an amicable agreement which implies they are agreeable to altering their Constitution to accord with French wishes. They are said to have been allowed 12 months to complete the necessary changes.
Meanwhile, the officials of Zurich have declared that, whilst they will defend their independence with their lives, they are equally willing to introduce an equality of civil and political rights throughout their lands, i.e. they will forego their former aristocratic privileges. They have organised a commission to frame the terms of a Constitution based on French principles. Until that is complete, they propose that they should continue in office under the former system.
Comparing Zurich and Berne, it seems the Swiss will submit to the spirit of the times but will endeavour to maintain the Helvetic Confederacy by amendment. The French on the other hand are opposed to any partial revolution.
From London we hear that the Great and Little Councils of Basel have resigned and 60 representatives have formed a provisional government. Other Cantons have also formed provisional governments like Basel. The Prince Abbot of St Gallen has resisted the trend – he has accepted 10,000 florins, the price he paid to the Toggenburgers for the country - and sold his sovereignty.
From Frankfurt we hear that Ambassador Mengaud has set the price of his agreement to the constitutional changes at 30 million livres. This is to be paid by Berne and Zurich.
By February the French army was withdrawing to the upper Rhine and it seems France is confident of Swiss agreement to substitute democracy for aristocracy. The Swiss are zealously endeavouring to both preserve their independence and avoid an invasion.
The hold-out is Lucerne which has taken a strong line. Its officials told Mengaud that the style of Swiss government requires that if one Canton is attacked, all are threatened and obliged to respond. All Swiss will fight to preserve their liberty, security and property. If France unilaterally forces change onto Switzerland, Lucerne says all Europe will recognise the injustice of her act. The Swiss people will not submit, even if the country is desolated for generations, and in the end they will prevail once their country is reduced to penury and no longer of interest to France. They note that would damage the achievement of the Batavian and Cisalpine Republics.
Sat 16th June 1798
Meanwhile between the Rhine and the Moselle, the provisional government of Creutnach is disbanded and required to reconstitute itself in the French style. The citizens of Mainz have been assessed at 192,000 livres as their town’s share of the 8 millions required by France of the German states.
Sat 16th June 1798
The Directory has advised the Council of 500 concerning Rome. A long preamble records the crimes of the Popes for 1,400 years throughout which time a handful of Roman families have operated the religion and the temporal administration. It notes that assassination has been their invariable tool to achieve agreement, whether the Papal States were prosperous or not.
The French army under Berthier was camped outside Rome while the Roman people themselves assumed the sovereignty of their country and took-over the Legislative and Executive functions of government. Five Consuls were invested with power to replace the former State Assembly and a popular government was established on 15th Feb 1798. The declaration was signed by all literate Romans.
They then invited Berthier to enter the city and deliver a speech of congratulations. He entered at the head of 100 cavalrymen from each of his regiments. He acknowledged the provisional government, recognised the independence of the Roman Republic and declared French protection. Almost no blood was spilled. Berthier was presented with a crown of olive leaves. All churches played the Te Deum to celebrate the restoration of liberty. 14 Cardinals attended the celebrations at St Peter’s. Every commune has planted a Tree of Liberty. Monuments are to be erected in several places to remember the sacrifice of General Duphot and Basseville.
The Pope departed on 20th Feb and an ambassador has been sent to Paris by the replacement government to give thanks. Berthier is to advise the provisional government on the organisation it should assume, based on Liberty and Equality. The French General Cervoni has assumed command of the Roman police. The new Republic governs all those ex-Papal lands that were recognised by Bonaparte under the Treaty of Campo Formio.
English letters say it is rumoured that the Duke of Parma will be given the government of Rome in exchange for ceding his present possessions to the King of Sardinia. This will facilitate the transfer of the island of Sardinia to France. Alternative English versions refer to the King of Naples getting the Papal states in return for ceding Sicily to France.
Sat 16th June 1798
In the Netherlands a new Constitution was proclaimed on 23rd Feb and a means has been found to diminish the power that Amsterdam has over the country:
The new Constitution requires the debts of the seven provinces to be consolidated in one national account. It abolishes all provincial quotas.
Every type of public revenue will have to be paid into the national Treasury before it can be disbursed. The capital and income of every citizen is to be assessed and an entirely new system of public finances developed on this basis. Annual public accounting will be required.
Executive power will be held by five men appointed by the Legislature. The Legislature will consist of two Houses, one dealing with day-to-day practicalities subject to the approval of the other. The separation of executive, judicial and legislative power is to be maintained at the provincial level. The only communication between them will be at the top.
A national guard is to be created.
Feudalism is abolished and the Church is severed from the State which latter retains all political power.
All retainers of the House of Orange are disenfranchised for ten years (it is a qualification for government employment that one swears an Oath of hatred to the House of Orange and to anarchy, aristocracy and federalism).
Dutch banks are made legally immune to the demands of foreign powers – they must pledge to support their government. The Batavian government has committed to make no political or commercial connections with the enemies of France.
Sat 16th June 1798
At about the same time that French frontiers in the north west and south east were being delineated in the above activities in Switzerland and the Netherlands, the Congress at Rastadt was dealing with the north east. On 24th Feb it offered to surrender some part of the German provinces along the left bank of the Rhine to France if that would procure peace. It invited France to select the lands it required. This concession seems due to the Emperor’s consensual ambassador at Paris, de Degelmann.
Sat 23rd June 1798
The homeward bound West India fleet caused great fear on 22nd Feb. It was seen off Portland and thought to be a French invasion fleet. The town of Weymouth put its military under arms. The Prince of Wales was at Critchill and heard of the matter. He wrote an express to the Duke of York and King in London. The messenger arrived before dawn yesterday and Nepean and Dundas were alerted. They went to the War Office where a similar invasion report was received from Dorchester. Pitt, Earl Spencer and Lord Grenville were called out and all the ‘usual suspects’ met when the true identity of the fleet was finally ascertained.
Sat 23rd June 1798
The Directory has sent a representative named Gallois to London to settle terms for an exchange of prisoners. Nettemen is his assistant. The details of exchange were agreed after which Lord Grenville, as Foreign Secretary, asked Gallois to leave London and withdraw some distance from the capital.
Gallois expostulated. “Your representative Captain Coates is residing in Paris and receiving every attention due to an accredited minister. What is the difference?” Grenville immediately issued him a passport and expelled him. On Sunday he set off for Dover to return to France.
Sat 23rd June 1798
Courier du Bas Rhin - The Directory has advised the Legislature on Rome:
Our ambassador to Rome is amongst us today. You have heard how his palace was invaded; how a hero of the Revolution was murdered within it.
The Bishops of Rome are audacious intriguers. They are supported by the incredulity of nations and the self-interest of monarchs. The Pope contradicts every principle of Christianity. He dishonours Christ, who asserts his kingdom is not of this world, and usurps a universal temporal monarchy.
The seal of Papal power has been his ability to assassinate opponents. Whether it is the proud oppression of Clement VI or the collection of crowns by Pius VI, they are the same. They murdered the Emperor of Bavaria and now they have murdered Hugo Basseville and Duphot.
This anti-social power that arose under Tiberius has survived for 1,400 years using the same duplicity, violence, debauchery and tyranny of that father of Nero. The Gospel speaks of humility, poverty and charity. Having shaken the throne of Rome under the garb of persecuted men, the first act that the Church took on its achieving Roman acceptance, was to absolve Constantine of the murder of his wife, father-in-law and son. It applauded the atrocities at Antioch and Thessalonica; it promoted incessant schisms to undermine Empires and showed itself under Charlemagne in all its sacred ferocity in the massacre of the Saxons. It is the enemy of all law. It makes deals with usurpers, manufactures false credentials, appoints masters to nations and consecrates or deposes monarchs as its interest dictates. It dissolves all Oaths, sells indulgences for both Heaven and Hell, controls infidelity and insinuates itself into all consciences to spy on the secrets of families. It invented excommunication for profit. It directed the Nicene Council to vindicate the worship of images. It inflamed Constantinople to civil war to avenge the Patriarchate; assassinated Henry IV in Rome; consecrated the massacre of the Albigeois; decreed in Basel the war of twenty nations in the interest of three priests; burnt John Hus and Jerome of Prague at Constanz for the honour of Heaven, and finally at Trent it amused the world for 18 years with the spectacle of idiocy (the Council of Trent).
China, Japan and the Incas of Cuzco have experienced the curse of the Popes. No place is safe from them.
But the people who have been most outraged by the Popes are the French. Look how they bent Louis the Debonair to their will. It was on French plains that they first introduced the Crusades - were they gratified with the treasure and punishment of the Templars? They conspired with Philip le Bel and transformed Paris into a scaffold. The Pope is like Hildebrand (who murdered many Popes). He is like Bertrand de Goth adjudicator of the Bishops of Bordeaux, like Doffa de Cahors the usurper of the Roman mitre, like Roger de Limoges a fraudulent bankrupt who under the names Gregory VII, Clement V, John XXII and Clement VI instructed the tyrants of France in the arts of dividing the people and sharing their treasure with the Vatican. It is to Leo X that our ancestors owed that sacrilegious convention that cost uncounted millions.
But the wealth of France was inadequate for them. They needed blood too. Recollect the massacre of all the French in Sicily – it was Pope Nicholas III who ordered it. The history of Burgundy and Armagnac is bloodied by Boniface IX. The tyranny of Louis XI was approved by Sextus IV. The horrors of the League have Gregory XIII receiving on his throne the head of Admiral Colign. It was Pope Gregory XIV who directed armies against France to install Henry IV on the throne. During the Fronde it was Innocent X who protected Cardinal de Retz. When a ferocious minister ordered the assassination of Cevennes, it was Innocent VII who conferred benediction on the murderers. The puerile disputes of Jansenism concerned no-one until Clement XI took it up and inflamed the matter. All our internal dissensions can in part be attributed to the Pope.
Well, we have seen through his divisive and murderous policy. The light of philosophy underlays our Revolution and enables us to see clearly. Remember who was the General of the Vendenne in whose name those brigands rebelled. To whom did that pretender to the French throne fly for protection when he needed refuge; who supported him? Just remember that at Pillnitz, when the neighbouring autocrats were apportioning shares of France amongst themselves, they were counting less on their armies and more on the authority of the Vatican to bring us back within the herd.
However, the Directory is mindful that many French people are conditioned to favour the Pope. For this reason alone, Rome is spared. We overlooked the outrage on Basseville. Our ambassador even signed the Treaty of Tollentino. This was indulgence. No sooner had our troops left the Papal states than the Pope resumed his assassinations. All Europe is convinced the Papal government chose to foment a semblance of revolt because they were then endeavouring to inflame France on the subjects of public worship and the use of church bells. It is the Pope’s conclusion that no Catholic can make an Oath of hatred against monarchy. He has forgotten that the prophet Samuel threatened the people to ‘send them Kings in his wrath’ in the name of God. In short the Pope collected his soldiers, recruited his foreign Generals and distributed arms amongst his people (for want of soldiers) to create a faked insurrection.
We ordered the army of Italy to march on Rome and seek vengeance. The Pope’s soldiers did not oppose us but some misguided farmers were seduced by the priests into opposing our approach. Our General proclaimed to the Romans that those who disavowed the acts of the priesthood had nothing to fear. It was then that the Romans declared the sovereignty of the people, while Berthier was beneath the walls. They annihilated the political, economic and civil authority of the priests and constituted themselves a free and independent nation, founded on principles of justice, truth, liberty and equality. They have selected five consuls to replace the Pope and his cardinals. They then sent 8 deputies to the French army outside and implored protection. Berthier went to the Capitol, invoked the shades of Cato and Brutus and recognised the Roman Democratic Republic. Some Romans had been led to expect plunder and slavery from us but once the true nature of our cause became clear to them they were reassured. Only the few cardinals and their adherents who fomented the fake insurrection have fled Rome. The rest of the people go about their daily business as usual. It is a unique testimony to French greatness that we will shortly have an ambassador in Paris who is sent here by Roman consuls. Sgd Merlin
Sat 23rd June 1798
London, 6th March - The Congress at Rastadt:
France, Austria and Prussia have agreed on the detailed partition of the German states. Relations between Prussia and France seem to be particularly harmonious. The division is secret but the Prussian minister has given a hint in a Declaration he made at Rastadt on 19th Feb. “My King wants peace and the relief of several parts of Germany from the expense of war by which they have been exhausted. The Austrian Emperor is persuaded that cession of the left bank of the Rhine to France will produce peace. We Prussians, as co-adjudicators of the Empire, will be hurt by the loss of so many faithful subjects. We will insure the happiness and security of the people whose nationality is transferred, on condition that we get an equivalent on this side of the river.”
Editor – it seems the Prussians have relinquished their former insistence on maintaining the integrity of the German Empire. They even seem agreeable to ceding their own lands on the left bank provided there is an equivalent on the right. As France has no possessions in that area the equivalent will come from someone else. Might this be Hanover?
Sat 23rd June 1798
Chief articles of the peace treaty agreed at Rastadt:
The intention of the Treaty is to provide, so far as is possible, for all participants to obtain strong natural frontiers. This treaty will incorporate the Treaty of Campo Formio. France obtains the Rhine as its eastern frontier. All ecclesiastical states in Germany will be secularised. The House of Brunswick loses Hanover and George III is removed from his positions of influence in the Austrian Empire.
The other main provisions are briefly:
The navigation of the Rhine will be free. Neither France nor Germany may establish tolls or levy imposts on river traffic.
Austria will disgorge its seizures in Poland and Silesia to Prussia. In return it gets Beyreuth, Salzburg and bits of Bavaria.
Prussia cedes part of Westphalia, Franconia and Pomerania to France. In return it gets all Hanover between the Weser and the Elbe and all Hamburg, the states of the Dukes of Brunswick Wolfenbuttel, etc.
Denmark gives the island of Bornholm (and the right to levy the Sound duties) to Sweden and gets Hanover right of the Elbe, Hamburg, Lubeck etc.
Switzerland surrenders Mulhausen and part of Basel, Neufchatel etc.
A Constitution is provided for the nine remaining German states – Bavaria, Bohemia, Brandenburg, Hesse Castel, Holstein, Nassau Bergen, Saxony, Westphalia and Wurtemberg. The Austrian Emperor will be President of the representative Assembly of these states and will enjoy sole responsibility for all matters of foreign policy and defence. Individual states may make treaties with other states or with foreign powers concerning their boundaries and their commerce. Votes in Assembly are proportioned to the revenues of the individual states. Electors with an annual income of over 2 million livres (c. £83,300) may coin their own money. No two electorates may unite, etc.
Sat 7th July 1798
London, 8th March – the Walsingham packet (which operates the Lisbon/Falmouth route together with the King George packet) has brought news of a Spanish fleet sailing from Cadiz. It is comprised of 22 capital ships and some escorting f