This chapter is mainly interesting for the disclosures about the Licensing system for trading with the enemy. A useful ‘how to’ guide is shown in the complaint of Lloyd’s Underwriters, after the loss of the Baltic convoy - its in the Sat 6th June 1812 edition.
Sat 20th Oct 1810
General Sarrazin, 2ic of the Boulogne garrison, which port is essentially involved in any invasion of England, has defected.1
He was previously captured during the early part of the war, induced to agree to help the émigré cause, and exchanged on 8th Oct 1798 for General Sir Harry Burrard. Thereafter he assisted the British.
French investigations of the Commandant of Antwerp subsequent to our attempted occupation have revealed widespread assistance for the British invasion of Flanders, and all sorts of British spies, inter alia Lt General Sarrazin, were exposed. In a way, he was unlucky.
He fled France in a rowing boat with his African servant and was picked-up by one of our blockading cruisers and brought to Dover. He was kept incommunicado until Shaw, the King’s Messenger, arrived and escorted him to London.
Sat 5th Sept 1812
Lt General Sarrazin, whilst commandant at Boulogne, provided us with plans and advice about French defences. He became suspected by Paris and fled to us.
He asked for £10,000 as compensation for his personal effects left behind at Boulogne and £50,000 for the secret information he provided. He also wanted to naturalise as a British subject and receive an annual pension of £3,000 from the British government.
Sat 6th March 1813
General Sarrazin has written to The Times:
London 18th Aug 1812 – I have long been pestered in London by people calling me to return to France. They have even sent carriages to my door at night. When I refused them they abused and threatened me. My petition to parliament to avoid exchange was rejected. My request to naturalise as British was also dismissed.
I wrote to Ellenborough and he said my exchange was just, but he told me the authority for executing the terms of the Aliens Act lay with the minister’s police. Since April I have written many letters for help but they are all unanswered. I guess its because the minister instructed an MP to make a proposal to me on 23rd March that I could not accept - I cannot consent to my enslavement.
On 4th April I put myself under the protection of Charles XIII, King of Sweden. The Swedish ambassador to London arranged passage for me to Gothenburg. Before I could pack, a group of Bow Street runners surrounded my house and captured me. I was taken to Reeves, Superintendent of the Aliens Office, who said I must consider myself a prisoner until the peace. He said the ministry would pay me nearly half my army salary but the actual sum was so small it was inadequate for survival. He then said I was a prisoner. I would get nothing unless I supported the British minister. The pension I was supposedly awarded has not been paid although the magistrate of Soho Square has kindly tried his best to influence the government to release the funds. The draft of the book of my experiences remains with the ministry and cannot be published.
Napoleon has decreed my execution for providing information to England. The English minister has uncaringly ordered MacKenzie of the prisoner-exchange office to offer me in exchange for British prisoners-of-war. I seem fated to die whether I stay here or am sent to Morlaix. I wished to bring my experiences to the attention of your readers so they may assess which government is without morals or honour.
The London press has published several letters of people I am supposedly in correspondence with. The letters are in a cypher reportedly based on the page numbers of my book. They are all forgeries sent to and intercepted by the Post Office. I made a complaint of criminal forgery to Ellenborough, the Chief Justice, and told him who the authors likely were but he ignored me.
That is what I have to say to your readers.
Sat 6th March 1813
Sarrazin’s petition to parliament for the Prince Regent was by hand of Lord Thomas Cochrane, dated 6th Jan. Cochrane is one of the representatives for Westminster where Sarrazin is living.
Cochrane is decidedly out of favour with the ministry for publishing details of judicial frauds on prize money at Malta. His brother Basil has been convicted of an old and inconsequential charge of corruption at Madras, that centre of venality.
The conspiracy of Ministers, Lords and Admirals against Cochrane has made him a convert to the liberal cause and he now attends the dinners of Burdett and other Foxites. Sarrazin’s confidence in the egality of parliament and the authority of representatives in the British system is however misplaced - the minister’s majority remains real although reduced.
Sarrazin’s petition notes the sentence of death awarded him in abstentia in France and protests his exchange. Cochrane has not replied - it seems he can make no progress – and parliament has now been prorogued.
Sarrazin says he has abandoned his claims to a pension and compensation - he only wants to preserve his life. He demands to be imprisoned or permitted to travel under the Swedish passport he has obtained. He expects Bernadotte will protect him. He is embarrassed to trouble Cochrane but his position is remarkable and unprecedented. Sarrazin says the ministry demands he write letters to Napoleon making proposals for peace.
Sat 6th March 1813
Sarrazin has been allowed to leave England. The recent publicity has assisted him. The Aliens Office issued a passport to him for a trip to Sweden and he left 9th Sept. The fourth volume of his book ‘The Philosopher’ is being published.
Sat 20th Oct 1810
Jeffery, the British seaman who was impressed into the Royal Navy and abandoned on Sombrero Island by Captain Warwick Lake of HMS Recruit, is alive. He was seen waving his arms by the American Capt Dennis of the schooner Adam in December 1807. Dennis put a boat ashore and rescued him. Jeffery had by then been abandoned for eight days and was only slightly emaciated but initially incapable of speech. He is now living in Beverly in America and pursues his original trade of blacksmith.
Sat 20th Oct 1810
London, June 1810 - Le Chevalier d’Eon (Charles Genevieve Louis August Andre Timothe d’Eon de Beaumont) has died at his house in Miltman Street, London aged 93 years. He was at one time the Secretary to the French Embassy in England and was involved in the French treaty of 1793.
About 30 years ago the Chevalier asserted female sex and commenced wearing women’s clothes, a practice he continued until his death. The determination of his sex attracted speculators at that time and considerable sums were invested on the matter. Several London doctors then conducted an examination and issued a joint report certifying the Chevalier to be a woman.
His long-term companion, Mrs Cole, has now authorised a surgical examination of the corpse. The autopsy was carried out in the presence of three famous surgeons and a French physician. Also attending were the Earl of Yarmouth, Sir Sidney Smith and M/s Lyttleton, Douglas, Adair, Wilson etc. A complete set of male genitalia was discovered in the usual place. It is expected that the underwriters who paid-out on the basis of the previous certificate will now seek for a recovery of their settlements.
The body is put on public display. The visitors number three women to every one man. He will be buried in St Pancras Churchyard.
Sat 20th Oct 1810
Napoleon’s new wife Maria Louisa is already pregnant according to reports from Ostend of 4th June.
Sat 20th Oct 1810
The latest cartel negotiation (prisoner exchange) with France is complex. Dickinson has been negotiating for England. He says the French have a huge number of Spanish prisoners whom they want to exchange but they are basically peasants with guns. Their recovery is useless to us. Dickinson is negotiating to fix a ratio of value and establish how many guerrillas are worth one soldier.
Sat 27th Oct 1810
Brougham notified the MPs that in spite of the passage of the Slave Trade Act, six slaving ships had been fitted out at Liverpool in the last two days.
Sat 3rd Nov 1810
Earl Grey has said in the Lords that our present prospects in this endless war are so poor that it would be inconceivable to make peace, yet the country was scarce able to continue the struggle. In a few short years annual national expenditure has risen from £16 millions to £83 million last year. Taxation had for years caused hardship and was now openly resented. The collectors (the revenue outside London is farmed) are literally fighting throughout the country to get payments. It is in any event inadequate to pay our way; we have to pledge this revenue as interest on our annual loans which have unsurprisingly risen to an unimaginable amount and we may never be able to pay them off.
Napoleon has achieved the ambition of Louis XIV. He rules over all Europe and needs only to settle the turmoil in Spain to be master of the entire continent. He will then have the fleets of every European maritime country to send against us.
As we cannot stop making war and we cannot raise more money, it behoves us to economise in everything we do. This was the policy of the brief administration Grey had enjoyed the honour of belonging to.
Our unwise former policies have estranged Denmark from us and she controls access to the Baltic, one of our important trade routes. We have a force in Sicily but all our naval power will be insufficient to retain it unless we win the hearts and minds of the Sicilian people. America, which was largely peopled by former Britons, had been alienated by our Order-in-Council which was enforced, so it is said, for the protection of our trade. How is it with such Draconian protection we are ourselves forced to abrogate those Orders in a routine way (the Licensing System) in order to obtain goods that are otherwise unobtainable?
The real effect of the Orders-in-Council has to been to subordinate our merchants to the executive government. The Licensing System will foreseeably cause a decline in the numbers of British seamen (it is carried on in foreign ships) and ultimately hit us in our most vulnerable place – our ability to run an unbeatable navy. Our attitude to neutrals is the most inscrutable part of our entire foreign policy. We should be wooing them not predating on them.
The domestic policy of ministers was as bad as their foreign policy. Every year the Chancellor scrambles for some new temporary expedient to bring in the cash. Because of the credit system foisted on the British people, the ministry had been empowered to control the issue of paper money and, as every schoolboy knew, paper money is getting less valuable by the day. The necessary relationship between value (silver & gold) and credit (the paper system) had been ignored. When our army in Spain offers Bills in payment for provisions, the Portuguese merchants discount them enormously. It was the same at Walcheren.
Sat 3rd Nov 1810
The Earl of Liverpool led a discussion on reform following Earl Grey’s speech. Grey himself has been a consistent advocate of reform for 20 years. The other Lords were not enthusiastic. They acknowledged there was a theoretical inequality between people but the House of Commons was there to remedy grievances and it did a fair job. Reform means substituting population for property as the determinant of power. How can that tend to improvement?
If the House of Commons really tried to entrench equality they would not know when to stop and it would assuredly end in the destruction of our system. Look at America – their government costs £800,000 a year, almost the same as the British Civil List, and they are only 6 million people.
Liverpool said the advantage England had over France was her navy which ensured British colonies remained productive and the home country supplied whilst French colonies were either occupied by us to our own advantage or made worthless like Santo Domingo and in either case gave no benefit to France. When the fighting stops this will assure England of a great advantage. We will have an effective and profitable colonial system whilst France will not.
Liverpool adverted to the Orders-in-Council. France was willing to let America trade but not with England. The Orders counteracted that Decree. Our commerce and manufacturers had flourished under the Orders. It was Liverpool’s belief that Britain was more prosperous not less so. He referred to the national accounts. The permanent taxes in 1803 had produced £31.5 millions; in 1810 £34.4 millions. He quoted several other statistics to show that the revenue was increasing. The army has increased by 27,000 men since 1807.
The French, for the first time in any war, have been entirely removed from the West Indies. We have captured 40 capital ships and 45 frigates of the French navy. The House of Braganza had been saved from French influence to return ‘when the time is right’. Spain is being encouraged to struggle for her independence. Liverpool concluded that things may have changed since 1807 but on balance they were still favourable to England.
Sat 3rd Nov 1810
The Marquis of Lansdowne in the same debate noted that there had been a greater addition made to the paper currency in 1809 than had ever occurred in any country over the same short period. From a variety of circumstances the value of the currency had diminished greatly which had acted severely on the working class. It had swelled the numbers of paupers requiring the services of the Poor Houses and it had been generally noted that there were few working men with three or more children who were not in the Poor House. This was something Lansdowne thought should receive attention from government.
Sat 24th Nov 1810
General Armstrong has written Pinckney from Paris on 25th Jan 1810 that the Duke of Cadore says Napoleon will annul the Berlin Decree if the British previously annul their blockade of that part of the French coast between the Elbe and Brest. Pinckney asked Wellesley on 15th Feb if Britain maintains any current blockade of the French coast. Wellesley replied that the French coast between the Elbe and Brest is under British blockade which blockade was subsumed into the Orders-in-Council of 1.1.07. Pinckney then asked is there still a blockade. Wellesley said ‘technically no – it has become an Order-in-Council.’
Sat 8th Dec 1810
George Villiers, the King’s friend and Paymaster of the Marines who, over a good many years, has drawn some £300,000 from the public funds for personal purposes, is apparently mad. No-one can get any sense out of him.
His estate is valued at about £100,000 and where the rest of the money went is still unexplained.
Sat 12th Jan 1811
The London banking house Brickwood & Co of Lombard St has failed. They had a Bill to £200,000 from a famous broker which could not be settled. That broker specialised in West Indian trade.
One of the bank’s partners is a relative of Admiral Rainier who acquired considerable wealth whilst in command of the East Indian squadron and invested £100,000 in the business in his relative’s name just a few months ago. Brickwood himself invested a further £60,000 two weeks ago but it was not sufficient.
Sun 13th Jan 1811 Extraordinary
The banking house of Devaynes Croft & Co in Pall Mall (old India Company family) has stopped payments on 3rd Aug 1810. W Devaynes died recently. He was a long-term Chairman of the Company.2
Sat 19th Jan 1811
There has been an insurrection at Stockholm. Its not England’s fault. We supported a young King who turned out to be an imbecile. It is generally supposed that Count Fersen was involved in the King’s murder but the truth may never be known - Fersen unwisely placed himself within reach of the crowd at the funeral of the King and the people tore him to pieces.3
Bernadotte, the French General, has inexplicably been elected Head of State in Sweden. The Gothenburg mails from Baltic to England are discontinued. Sweden is lost to us for the foreseeable future.
Sat 19th Jan 1811
Capt Boyce of HMS Moselle fired a 32-pound shot into USS Vixen as she was sailing south reportedly for New Orleans. Col Poindexter, a Congressman, was a passenger on USS Vixen at the time. He was unhurt but the son of US Attorney General Rodney was slightly injured.
Boyce said he could not see the US colours and supposed the Vixen to be a French privateer. Criticism of Boyce in the American press is scathing.
Sat 19th Jan 1811
The Austrian Emperor Francis has signed a treaty of offence and defence with France on 14th June 1810. This will concern both Russia and the Porte.
Sat 19th Jan 1811
The Prussian Court has barred American ships from its ports.
Sat 19th Jan 1811
Napoleon has issued a Decree from the Trianon on 5th Aug 1810 fixing the duty payable on various types of cotton, sugar, tea, indigo, cocoa, cochineal, pepper, spices, tropical timber and other colonial goods imported into France. This is to regulate the Licensed trade we have been conducting with France. Formerly all colonial goods were deemed to be English goods and confiscated. There is still a threat of confiscation if the declarations accompanying the goods are not made out perfectly.
The following day he told Armstrong, the American minister in Paris, he would revoke the Berlin and Milan Decrees. He said, as America has now legislated to oppose any belligerent that denies the maritime rights of neutrals, he will rescind the Decrees effective 1st Nov 1810. The revocation is conditional on England both revoking its Order-in-Council and renouncing any substitute way of attempting blockade. He says he loves America - its achievement of independence is a principal evidence of the glory of France.4
Sat 26th Jan 1811
Paris, 9th July - King Louis of Holland (Napoleon’s brother) abdicated on 3rd July in favour of his eldest son. He believes it is impossible to continue the government of the country. The problem can be stated as either inadequate revenue or excessive public spending. The merchants of Holland complain that their competitors at Antwerp, Ghent and Middleburg (all now in France) are catching business on the Scheldt that formerly went via Holland. Some of the commerce of the Rhine has been diverted to the Scheldt. Rotterdam and Dortrecht are being diminished commercially.
The public debt of the Dutch state now approaches 90 million Florins, it is a quarter more than the entire debt of the French empire. Even 30 millions is beyond the present ability of the Dutch to service. The Dutch people are paying three times the interest that France pays. There are 25 distinct taxes the Hollanders must pay. In spite of these imposts, the revenue is still inadequate and interest on the public debt has not been paid for 18 months.
The financial situation will get worse and the only salvation for Holland lies in her incorporation in the French state. The Dutch accordingly apply to France for incorporation in the Empire. Foreign Minister Cadore has commended incorporation to Napoleon and has sent him a draft enabling Decree.
Napoleon gave his nephew a briefing (the replacement King of Holland is Napoleon, Grand Duke of Berg – he is 6 years old). The Emperor told him “I will be your father while your real father is ill. His infirmity explains his abdication. Remember that in whatever position my policies may place you, your first duty is to me and your second to France. All your other obligations come afterwards.”
Sat 2nd Feb 1811
The King of Denmark is upset he was not offered the crown of Sweden. He should take care or a French general will replace him too. Denmark’s commerce is now solely derived from privateering. Their traditional trade is at an end with the closure of the Baltic to the English but they make a good living from seizing merchant ships coming through the Oresund.
Sat 2nd Feb 1811
King Ferdinand of the Two Sicilies has proclaimed to the people of Sicily on 10th July 1810 against Napoleon (‘that ferocious enemy’):
“You may place unlimited confidence in the navy of our ally England. Join your abilities to theirs to defeat the common foe. Our brothers on the mainland have been misled by the French and suppose the British to be their enemy. It is untrue. Britain is deeply concerned for your welfare. A friend in need is a friend in deed. The French army being sent against you has been promised five days of plunder – do not trust a word they say. Remember - France bad; England good.”5
Sat 2nd Feb 1811
On 20th July a meeting was held in the City by the principal bankers and merchants of London to consider ways of supporting those merchants who had fallen into financial difficulty. The bankers were represented by Smith Payne & Smith, Masterman & Co, Everett & Co, Vere Druce & Co and some others. It was agreed to settle the full amounts claimed against selected respectable traders in four equal 6-monthly payments.
A list of the debts and assets of some selected debtors (those with prospects of recovery) was circulated:
|
|
|
£ Debts |
£ Assets |
|
|
Grave Sharp Fisher & Fisher |
503,000 |
631,592 |
|
|
Rowlandson & Bates |
285,898 |
330,444 |
|
|
Rowlandson Isaac & Co |
288,698 |
339,432 |
|
|
Hardy Ottley & Co |
311,982 |
377,775 |
|
|
John Goodiar |
381,952 |
487,209 |
These failures all arose in the linen trade. Four of the London brokers in that market (Richard Ford, Sir Robert Graham, M Shaw of M/s Shaw & Fletcher and another) will supervise the accounts of the debtors.
Sat 2nd Feb 1811
The British have obtained a blank French Licence from supporters in Nantes. The form costs the licensed trader 80 Napoleons (each worth 20 Francs). It shows the form of the Licence and its terms:
A French trading house must be named as security merchant for the American ship. The principals of that House must submit a written recognition of the offence of providing intelligence to the enemy. They must have a good reputation and extensive credit. The counterpart is to be completed by the French agent at Charleston or New York.
The type of cargo that may be licensed for import is listed (cottons, fish oil, dye stuffs and cod from USA; coffee and sugar from French colonies in West Indies and Asia; cocoa and bullion from the Dutch islands; indigo, mahogany, ebony – in short all the produce of the East and West Indies that may be legally imported into France, except tobacco).
The export cargo of the American ship will equate in value with the imports. The licensed trade is to be a moneyless barter trade. Exact prices will be fixed by the Prices Current of the port of trade. Half the exports will consist of French wine and brandy; the rest may be woollen, silk, hemp or linen cloth or any other French manufacture. No grain, flour or cheese may be exported.
Ship masters engaged under this licensing system are not required to produce Certificates of Origin for their cargo. The Captain shall carry a letter of identification from the French Agent at port of loading, addressed to the French Foreign Minister. The Agent will provide American newspapers published on the date of the ship’s departure. Before the master may open the holds, he must obtain permission from the Customs Commissioner in Paris.
In return for performance of these conditions the ship will not be molested by French cruisers during its voyage to/from France but if any fraud is attempted whatsoever the licence will be instantly cancelled, the ship confiscated and the security merchant fined.
The new Duke of Portland has sold off £500,000 of family property to extinguish his father’s debts.
Sat 23rd March 1811
Frankfurt Journal, 2nd May:
Napoleon has taken a special interest in Rome. He thinks the ancient monuments should be preserved and he says the Pope has been a poor steward of them.
He has ordered the restoration of the Temples of Vesta and of Fortune, the remains of which are still extant on the banks of the Tiber in the middle of what has become the main city drain. Judging from the simplicity of form and the type of ornaments within, the Temple of Vesta was last rebuilt by Augustus.
He is also arranging the restoration of the Temple of Antoninus, of Faustina, of Concord and of Jupiter Stator, the Theatre of Marcellus, the Portico of Octavius and several other ancient structures of significance to our own civilisation.
Sat 23rd March 1811
Paris, June 1810 - Fouché has accepted the title and benefits of Duc d’Otrante. He will apply his undoubted talents as Police Minister to affairs in the Papal States.
Given the endless intrigue that has always characterised the court of the Pope in Rome and has flavoured the characters of the people of those states, Napoleon has send the analytical old Fouché to penetrate the veil. Fouché has happily accepted the new job but worries at being so far from Paris in case he is needed by Napoleon.
At the same time the arrangements for removal of the priests from Rome have been published. They get free passports and financial assistance in relocation. The monks of Ireland, Scotland, Sicily, Malta, Armenia, Greece and the archipelago, who cannot return home immediately, will be registered with the police for the duration of their continuing residence.
Sat 23rd March 1811
The Arch Duchess Maria Louisa was deeply affected by a gift of Napoleon which she received whilst on her way from Vienna to Paris. It was at first glance a rather simple box but on opening it she found an acquittance for 25 million Florins, the sum that Austria owes France in reparations for her recent war.6
Sat 20th April 1811
Lucien Bonaparte, his wife and seven children together with their 40 servants have fled Italy and arrived at Malta on 23rd Aug. Lucien is unhappy because Napoleon expects him to divorce his wife and marry into one of the European royal families to better secure the family’s future.
Napoleon also required Lucien’s agreement that his 15 year old daughter, who has been schooling in Paris, marry Ferdinand VI, the ex King of Spain. Lucien was said to be mindful of the difficulties that his brother Louis had faced in Holland in reconciling Dutch and French interests. He decided to run away.
He took passage on the American ship Hercules which was to take the family to Cagliari in Sardinia but Hill, the British Consul at Cagliari, refused them permission to land. Adair, the late British minister to Constantinople, coincidentally passed through Cagliari at that time and suggested Hill to send the family to Malta. They themselves wished to go to America.
Lucien’s family is presently detained in the citadel at Valletta fort awaiting to know George III’s pleasure.
Sat 27th April 1811
A large number of ancient marble and porphyry statues from the Villa Borghese in Rome have arrived at Paris and will be exhibited in the Louvre.
Sat 27th April 1811
Napoleon is keen to prevent all the Baltic ports receiving British trade but this brief self-abnegation is beyond the Russian merchants’ ability to achieve.
It is also irritating the Danes – they need trade to continue, both for itself and to make their privateering profitable. Much smuggling is passing through the ports of Sjelland, the very island on which Copenhagen stands, and the Danes are reluctant to police the ports with 30,000 troops as Napoleon demands.
Meanwhile, in Poland, the people of Konigsberg are said by British merchants to suppose a rupture between France and Russia is imminent. Their rationale relates to the sovereignty of Poland. France wishes to give the crown to Berthier while Alexander does not want a French general for a neighbour and proposes John Poniatowski, heir to the old Polish Royal Family.
Sat 4th May 1811
Napoleon has been unable to effectively stop the import of British goods through Holland - trade always finds a way. In Oct 1810 he ordered that all British manufactures found in Holland, Berg or the Hanseatic towns were to be burned. It is the same for Italy, Illyria, Naples and Spain and any other place under French influence. He will try to prevent the corruption of his Customs officials.
Sat 4th May 1811
Pinckney has written to Lord Wellesley on 25th Aug 1810 that he has received a letter from General Armstrong, the American minister at Paris, saying France will revoke the Berlin and Milan Decrees in November 1810.
He says he ‘takes it for granted’ that the British Orders-in-Council of Jan and Nov 1807, April 1809 and all other Orders dependent on those three sets will be revoked.
Wellesley replied that the British ambassador to USA had said on 23rd Feb 1808 that we wish global commerce to be freed. Wellesley recites that wish and adds that ‘His Majesty will feel the highest satisfaction in relinquishing a system which the conduct of the enemy compelled him to adopt.’
Sat 4th May 1811
The Lord Chancellor has told the House of Lords on 1st Nov that the King is presently unable to sign commissions, precisely the Commission to Prorogue Parliament (which has already been published in the Gazette).
The Lord Chancellor can himself affix the Great Seal but without a signature it is likely not legally enforceable. He expects the King to recover soon. He is said to be distressed by the illness of his daughter, Princess Amelia. The Lord Chancellor suggests for good order that the House be prorogued as required, for the shortest possible period.
Liverpool suggests there is a precedent for two weeks vacation and requests the Lord Chancellor to write to each Lord requesting his return on 15th Nov. Agreed.
The Commons managed to collect 100 MPs and did the same.7
Sat 4th May 1811
The long negotiation with France at Morlaix for exchange of prisoners failed in early Nov and the negotiators are returning home.
Sat 25th May 1811
The European situation, Nov 1810:
The Tsar has obtained the cession of Wallachia and Moldavia and ended his war with Turkey.
Sweden under Bernadotte has declared war on England and confiscated all British property in the country that arrived after 24th April 1810.
Denmark is pressing all the seamen in Danish and Norwegian ports to create a pro-French naval force for use in the Baltic.
British and American ships are being seized in Prussian Baltic ports - about 40-50 have been taken in Memel alone. There can be no doubt that Napoleon is determined to exclude British trade from the Baltic to induce us to make peace.
The Hamburg bankers, as of Oct/Nov 1810, were declining to draw, accept or endorse any Bills to which an English merchant was a party. The French garrison of Frankfurt has searched the warehouses and discovered a huge amount of English manufactures and colonial goods.
All commercial goods from Westphalia arriving at the River Weser are routinely returned, regardless of Certificates of Origin (which are invariably forged in any event).
Leipzig is infested with troops to enforce the Proclamation against British trade. They stand guard in front of every large shop and patrol the suburbs. A large quantity of English goods, which had been removed from Leipzig on wagons and was being taken to a place of safety by the owners, was pursued and brought back. Similar events are occurring all over Europe.
Sat 25th May 1811
5th Dec 1810 – 3% consols 67½; 3% reduced 66, Omnium 5 discount.
Sat 25th May 1811
Two cases on tax evasion have been heard at the Exchequer Sittings:
In the first the Solicitor General said the 90% tax on tea encouraged smuggling all along the Channel coast. He noted that in former cases the Captains of Indiamen who smuggled tea in this way had customarily been fined £200. The offences were routinely discovered by comparison of the loading manifest done at Whampoa with the out-turn at London. In the instant case he withdrew his prosecution of the Captain as only 4 cases out of 18,000 were short and the involved Captain was making his first voyage.
The second case involved Purdy and Warding, Collectors of Taxes in Norfolk. The farmers of the area generally were liable to pay about £3 – £4 in taxes but the Collectors added an extra Pound. The farmers never checked the paperwork and relied on the Collectors’ representations until the instant case. The Collectors were substantial farmers themselves (they farm both land and tax) and should have known better.
Sat 1st June 1811
All the French documents relative to the succession in Spain are published.
Tues 11th June 1811 Extraordinary
The Prince of Wales wants Lords Grenville and Grey to form a ministry but, as his Kingly powers as Regent are incomplete, they demur and Perceval gets a reprieve.
Sat 15th June 1811
Stockholm, 21st Jan - Russia, Denmark, Sweden and Prussia have agreed the terms of an offensive/ defensive treaty. It is to be signed shortly. It provides that no British-flag ship or ship carrying British manufactures or any sort of colonial goods will be permitted in any Baltic port.
If such a ship or cargo is found in any Baltic port it will be confiscated and sold and the proceeds kept by the involved government. Any colonial goods found anywhere in a Baltic state will also be confiscated and sold for that government’s account.
Neutral shipping is welcome provided they carry the produce of America or French or Dutch colonies, have not visited a British port, have not bought a British licence and have not, in any other way, violated their neutrality.
Sat 15th June 1811
13th Dec 1810 - HMS President has arrived at Plymouth bringing Lucien Bonaparte, his family and household and all his 33 tons of luggage. A message has been sent along the signalling stations to London to ask directions for their disposal. The warship has been put in quarantine and will remain so until the London answer arrives. Lucien is annoyed at his treatment.
The ship anchored in the Sound where a heavy swell made his wife ill but no-one seemed to care until he himself complained. He is about 50 years old 5’ 7” tall and sallow. His wife is plump but handsome. They have 5 daughters and 2 sons aged 8 - 17 years.
They eventually landed on 23rd Dec and were housed in the King’s Arms with a group of British naval and army officers. They will later go to the seat of the Earl of Powis in Montgomeryshire. Lucien is to be treated as a Prisoner of War.
Sat 15th June 1811
Court of King’s Bench, 25th Jan – a man who was impressed into service in the Royal Navy has applied for a Writ of Habeas Corpus:
Counsel for the Admiralty says the man, named Jervis, had been impressed five days prior to the incident complained of, but was exempted as he is the master of a coal-carrying ship, and that was sufficient to earn his release from the earlier impressment. On the second occasion, which is the subject of these proceedings, he was inadequately submissive to the officer conducting the press-gang and was accordingly drafted into HMS Eliza and later transferred to HMS Standard, in spite of his complaints. Counsel for the Admiralty says he would have been discharged on the second impressment if he had been humble and apologised satisfactorily. HMS Standard was then dispatched to Cadiz and could not be recalled without great national inconvenience, Counsel said, hence the long delay between Jervis’ second impressment and trial.
Lord Ellenborough said it was the duty of the Court to guard against such unpopular acts as impressment. The Admiralty agree that Jervis, as the master of a ship, is exempt from impressment. He was ordered released from naval service.
Sat 22nd June 1811
The selection of Bernadotte as Crown Prince of Sweden is an embarrassment to England. The English people have been told consistently for years that France is the aggressor everywhere, that she oppresses the groaning populace of Europe by military might, and similar stories.
Now there is this incomprehensible decision of the Swedes to have a French General lead their country in preference to their own Royal Family. Its like Swiss, German and north Italian choices previously and the opinions of a majority of the Dutch. Why are these countries tolerant of Napoleon?
Sat 29th June 1811
Danish attempts to press seamen in their Norwegian colony have failed. By early January 1811 it was apparent that all the Norwegian sailors are unwilling. Not only that, but the army was ordered to enforce compliance and declined to do so. They all say impressment forces them to serve in what are effectively French warships.
This is a great opportunity for England. If we can sever Norway from Denmark we can use those ports to provision and refit our Baltic fleet and keep the Oresund open to our trade.8
Sat 29th June 1811
The shortage of domestic supply of grain caused the British distilling industry to shift from grain to sugar as its raw material. Since the turn of the century the consumption of sugar for distilling has been about 200,000 Hogsheads a year. With our control of maritime trade, the import of sugar to Britain has increased. In 1807 it was 270,000 Hogsheads. The result of increased supply has been an increased demand from the distillers who now process 250,000 Hogsheads. The actual production of cane sugar has declined due to the abolition of slavery in parts of West Indies. Sugar is accordingly the one colonial product that is not glutting our market.
This nullifies Napoleon’s boast that his captured sugar colonies will be returned to him at the peace in better condition than when he lost them – in point of fact the abolition of slavery in West Indies (commenced by France and continued under our military governments of occupation) has deranged the island economies and several will be unproductive for decades.
Sat 29th June 1811
Letter from a London merchant, 19th November 1810:
The immense increase in our commerce has been paralysed by the French ‘continental system’. For the last three months England has been in a commercial crisis. The Gazette every week lists 50-60 bankruptcies around the country.
The difficulty is that Heligoland, which is our entrepot for all colonial produce into Germany, is stuffed with merchandise but we cannot get the buyers to visit and take it off – its just too far out in the North Sea. Coffee was recently sold there at 6 French sous; sugar at 3 sous. Both prices are less than the freight and insurance to send the goods from London to Heligoland.
Apart from the delivery difficulty, the King has become personally highly unpredictable and the ministry is opposed to a proper Regency, recognising that they will assuredly lose their places - we have both commercial and political crises to contend with.
Mon 22nd July 1811 Extraordinary
Lord William Bentinck is appointed Minister Plenipotentiary to Palermo in Sicily.
Mon 22nd July 1811 Extraordinary
British merchants at St Petersburg say that colonial produce will again be received in Russia shortly but at very high duties. They also expect to make no losses on the cargoes that were sequestrated. Something has changed Russian policy.
Mon 22nd July 1811 Extraordinary
Pinckney, the American minister, is leaving London. He has not convinced Perceval’s ministry to withdraw the Orders-in-Council. Napoleon, on the other hand, has become more attentive of the Americans.
A copy of a Decree was received from France in late February (see above) saying all kinds of American produce will be accepted in French ports
Sat 27th July 1811
Pinckney’s negotiations with London for rescission of the Orders-in-Council are ended. He has gone back to Washington and the Charge d’Affaires left in London has no powers to negotiate anything. The American effort to re-open the seas to international commerce has failed.
Sat 27th July 1811
Le Moniteur says the check given to the British economy by the Continental System will be fatal. In the last three months the speculators of London have lost their appetites. In his speech to parliament on ascending the throne, the Regent said the national revenue had decreased, particularly in Ireland. The Moniteur infers Britain cannot hold-out for long. On the other hand, it says, the French economy has been steadily growing at 3 – 10% a year for the last 4 years.
Sat 3rd Aug 1811
Lord Holland has referred the House of Lords to the case of a debtor named William Cullum, gaoled in Marshalsea Prison, who, according to the Coroner’s Jury, died in January of starvation whilst detained. The Coroner got the verdict amended to ‘want of food, clothing and medication’ but it still sounds bad.
The law requires a creditor to pay the subsistence of a debtor he has caused to be imprisoned. The amount is 6d per day but, owing to the slow process of law, these payments seldom commence much before the end of about five month’s imprisonment. Holland said that if the Lords were truly concerned for the people they would strictly attend to the administration of justice.
Sat 3rd Aug 1811
News from America reveals that several businesses in New York failed in January this year. All the failures are attributed to the non-renewal of the Charter of the Bank of the United States.
Sat 17th Aug 1811
The American Committee on Foreign Relations has presented a Bill to Congress in January 1811 commending a national response concerning Britain’s Orders-in-Council. They were expected to be revoked in November, once France abandoned the Berlin and Milan Decrees, as published in Le Moniteur of 9th Sept, but were not.
As the British Orders have not been repealed, the Act to Interdict British Trade will become effective in February 1811. In case the Orders be belatedly repealed, any goods seized under the American Act will be carefully stored for eventual return to owners. The Act puts the burden of proof always on the Defendant to establish his innocence. It provides for the President to charter up to 100 ships and hire the necessary seamen to man them to give effect to its provisions.9
Sat 31st Aug 1811
Maria Louisa has given birth to Napoleon’s son on 20th March. He is to be known as the King of Rome.
Sat 31st Aug 1811
A large British fleet, made-up mainly of ships that have been in port for repair and refit, is leaving for the Baltic under Admiral Saumarez’s command. He is a French-speaking Channel Islander. It sailed north on 18th March.
Sat 14th Sept 1811
The Americans have nominated Joel Barlow as their new Ambassador to France. Barlow was elected a member of the French Convention at the same time as Thomas Paine and then wrote his Advice to the Privileged Classes. We frankly wonder what Napoleon will make of the appointment.
Sat 28th Sept 1811
The merchants of Hull have complained that in the last three years over 200,000 tons of foreign shipping has been employed to carry British exports to the Baltic and those foreign owners require, on average, three times the freight that a British ship would charge for the service. These foreign ships are often Dutch, Danish, Swedish, etc and are operated by nationals of countries hostile to us.
During their visits, they are able to obtain detailed up-to-date information on our ports and the state of our country.
The use of foreign shipping has two other indirect effects – there is less ship building for British trade and there are less employment available for British sailors.
The Hull merchants petition the Board of Trade to issue no more Licences to foreign ships. They ask that at least those ships from ports where our own ships are excluded should not be licensed.
Sat 28th Sept 1811
Lloyd’s of London has presented a piece of plate to Joseph Marriot for his indefatigable opposition to the new Marine Insurance Bill in the House of Commons.
Sat 12th Oct 1811
Sir Samuel Romilly wishes to restore the rigour of the statutes to the criminal courts. On his motion, the House of Commons has debated a new law. The incidence of a particular type of theft – from dwelling houses – has increased and the public are fearful. A few years ago the House of Commons exempted theft from the person (pick-pockets) from capital punishment. Thefts from residences were formerly treated as thefts from the person. Romilly’s new law requires reinstatement of capital punishment on conviction for theft from within a dwelling house. It has just had its first reading.
MPs hold that the key to deterrence of crime is heavy punishment and our statute book is replete with capital offences and those requiring banishment (generally to Botany Bay).
Frankland MP said the law must be clothed in grave austerity – dread of detection is the aim, he said. He thought the actual punishment is less important than the way it is held over the suspect by the Judge - in a way to excite the criminal’s moral apprehension. Frankland had interviewed some magistrates and they were quite satisfied with the powers they already held. He said it is a peculiarity of a free country that its law should provide for severe punishments – thus was the liberty and happiness of the people maintained.
Sir John Anstruther agreed. He thought new offences were regularly created by the Legislature in accordance with the prevalence of any particular crime, as in this case. The awards were generally harsh and remained unamended on the statute book after the problem had been contained. The result was a shocking penal code and this was its advantage – the public believed its protection was proportional to the severity of the sentence.
However Anstruther detected a problem - the harshest punishments were seldom awarded because the Judge had a discretion to mitigate awards. Anstruther thought this discretion should be strictly limited by describing the common aggravations that accompany crime, listing them in the ordinance, and removing the Judge’s discretion where they are present. He ridiculed recent awards in which convicts had received multiple death sentences and then been gaoled. He thought a proper sentencing policy would reduce crime - that is the purpose of law.
MacDonald said there were many cases of victims declining to prosecute offenders because they feared the punishment would be disproportionate to the crime. There was also evidence that, if a theft was comparatively small, the victim might decline to involve himself in the inconvenience of a trial. Theft was a capital crime but only one thief in a thousand is hanged. Thieves take comfort from both the uncertainty of detection and the beneficial effects of good mitigation on their sentences. Juries seemed to arrogate to themselves a discretion on sentencing - they repeatedly seek to influence the Judge’s award with pleas for clemency, etc. MacDonald thought all these features had to be addressed before the fear of the law could be reinstated amongst the public.
Lord George Grenville said punishing small crimes with death was counter-productive. Only fifty years ago we had 160 separate offences punishable by death. What would tourists think of us? It is unChristian. Severe punishments are relics of feudalism. He observed that the Empress Catherine of Russia alleviated her people from most of the onerous punishments of the Russian code and no bad effects ensued.
Abercromby produced a list of committals and trials of cases of theft which had involved stealing in a dwelling house to illustrate the reluctance of victims to pursue their remedies at criminal law (the usual reason for a case to not proceed):
|
|
|
Committed |
Tried |
|
|
1802 |
107 |
79 |
|
|
1803 |
168 |
109 |
|
|
1804 |
135 |
59 |
|
|
1805 |
131 |
70 |
|
|
1806 |
138 |
36 |
Not only are complainants increasingly reluctant, but in last sessions a woman was charged for theft of a £10 banknote (a capital offence) but was found guilty by the Jury of theft of 40/- (also a capital offence but for which a gaol sentence will invariably be substituted). These Jurors are sworn before they act and everyone of them must have committed perjury in this case - to avoid a judicial murder they voluntarily became judicial perjurers.
In the last ten years the records show 895 people were tried for theft, 155 acquitted and 414 convicted of stealing less than 40/-. It is likely that a large number of people are being exempted from the proper rigour of the law by errant Jurors who produce verdicts contrary to facts. What is more astonishing than this routine miscarriage of justice, is that MPs profess surprise that it is occurring – the very people who are supposed to be best informed of what is going-on in the country.
Perceval said MPs must have firmer nerves. Judges should award capital sentences whenever the law required it. It would have a wonderful effect on the crime rate, he forecast. The purpose of law is to diminish the incidence of anti-social acts. Harsher punishment = greater deterrence. The statistics concerning shop-lifting were even worse than stealing from a residence – in the last five years 598 people have been committed for shop-lifting, 120 were tried and 20 convicted but not one of them was executed. In the same period two servants had been hanged for stealing in a dwelling house.
Romilly said that at the beginning of George III’s reign 60% of people convicted of capital offences were executed and 40% were pardoned and gaoled; now only one in seventeen (6%) is executed. We should shape our laws to accord with our punishments. Nearly all our criminal laws are proposed by the ministry and pass without debate.
The Bill was then voted (79/53 in favour) and committed for second reading next week. Two precisely similar Bills (but for stealing in shops and in bleaching grounds) were committed at the same time.
Sat 12th Oct 1811
Death in London, mid-April 1811 – Sir William Addington, 80 years. He was Magistrate of the Public Office at Bow Street for 28 years. He was active in the suppression of all the many protests that occurred in London 1797 – 1803.
He arrested Hadfield, the Duke of York’s ex-orderly, who shot twice at George III in the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in 1800. He ascertained Hadfield’s madness long before the Court seized of the case was convinced of it. However the abuse Addington received for his opinion procured his resignation and was a continual source of later irritation for him.
Sat 19th Oct 1811
American news – the merchants of New Haven and now Hartford (Chairman John Caldwell, Secretary Charles Sigourney) have resolved that the right to trade is a natural right that cannot be denied or restricted by Act of Congress. They characterise the right of navigation in the same way.
The Hartford merchants say the Berlin and Milan Decrees have not been rescinded but Congress allows our trade with France and not with England. The Presidential Decree of 2nd Nov 1810 and the non-importation law of 2nd March 1811 are irrelevant - our trade with England must be restored. Our national policies should be independent of prejudice and submissiveness.
Sat 2nd Nov 1811
The Prince of Wales is pursuing his policy of overt justice and has re-appointed his brother the Duke of York to command of the British army on 25th May 1811. When the King, who is said to be still unwell, heard of it he was overjoyed. He said it was the ‘warmest wish of his heart’.
Sat 9th Nov 1811
Heligoland, 16th May – an English merchant has just arrived from the continent. He waited three weeks at the mouth of the Elbe to obtain passage here. He says there has been a rumour for many months that France and Russia will fight but time has passed and nothing has happened so he is unsure how sound the forecast is.
Sat 9th Nov 1811
London, 4th June – George III is 73 years old today. The Prince Regent and the Royal Dukes of York, Cumberland and Sussex have arrived at Windsor to celebrate. The Queen will hold a party at Frogmore Lodge.
Sat 30th Nov 1811
The Anholt mail of 1st June (carrying letters from Konigsburg, Gothenburg and ports around the Baltic generally) reports Admiral Sir James Saumarez is at Gothenburg with the fleet. He is awaiting reinforcement before attempting to force the Oresund. He has demanded that the Swedish authorities at Karlshamn surrender all the merchant shipping and cargoes in their port.
It seems our informal trade at Karlshamn was interrupted when all the Customs Officers of the port were arrested for impropriety. At the same time, all resident foreigners were sent inland. A similar enforcement of the law against British merchants, shipping and goods has occurred at Karlskrona, further east on the Swedish coast. The ships had started to offload there when they were peremptorily ordered to cease and all foreigners were required to leave the country. The goods at Karlskrona however remain in the control of the shipowners under the sole condition that they might not be exported.
Napoleon has confiscated Bernadotte’s property in France but the General is unconcerned. He is popular in Sweden and these acts against our smuggling trade must be his acts. He has ordered the capture of all Danish ships and the imprisonment of their crews. The Danes have licensed over 400 privateers in the Baltic and have been as assiduously piratical as the British – a huge number of Swedish ships were captured by them before this response. Their removal from Baltic trade is predictable and will be welcomed in Sweden.
Sat 30th Nov 1811
Lord Melville, Baron Dunira and MP for Midlothian, has died. He normally awakes at 7 am and when he did not appear the servant went in and found him lying in bed on his side with his head cradled in one arm and the other extended down his side. He was a man of strong friends and strong enemies. He was in turn Treasurer of the Navy, Secretary of State and First Lord of the Admiralty, in which last position he was greatly esteemed by British naval officers. At the time of his death he was still a Privy Councillor, Lord Privy Seal for Scotland and Governor of the Bank of Scotland.
Melville became an advocate in 1764 and was soon after made Solicitor General. In 1775 he became Lord Advocate for some ten years.
Robert Dundas, his son by his first wife, is MP for Edinburgh and President of the Board of Control. He succeeds to Melville’s titles and must vacate the seat for Edinburgh on his elevation to the House of Lords.
Perceval has proposed the Prince of Wales appoint Lord Moira to the vacated position of Lord Privy Seal of Scotland. These political jobs are fully within the gift of the minister - Perceval should get his way.
Sat 30th Nov 1811
The preliminary articles of peace between Russia and Turkey were signed on 23rd April whereby Russia gets Moldavia and Bessarabia and all their ports while the Porte gets Wallachia. Serbia’s neutrality is guaranteed. If this agreement is ratified, Russia gets another slice of Black Sea coast and control of the River Dnestr along its entire course to that sea.
The German papers are saying that any peace between Russia and Turkey must ipso facto cause a rupture between Russia and France.10
Sat 14th Dec 1811
The House of Commons, debated the reappointment of Duke of York as CiC British Army on 6th June:
Lord Milton moved that the Duke had resigned in embarrassing circumstances (the ‘Mrs Clarke case’) in March 1809 and should not be re-employed. The House of Commons investigated the matter deeply but reached no conclusion. We were generally uncritical of Mrs Clarke’s evidence. Mrs Clarke has since published a book about her involvement in the matter which seems to suggest she is mischievous. She has a way of stating facts that pervert them. She has been examined judicially and her credibility brought into question. One part of her evidence caused the Lord Chief Justice to suggest that there were grounds to charge her with subornation of perjury and she has herself since confessed to receiving money for her evidence.
Once you hold a doubt about her credibility and reconsider all the other evidence, the case against the Duke becomes far less convincing and even doubtful, Milton said. Indeed the barrister Peter Alley, who was Counsel to Colonel Wardle, has said Stokes confessed to him that he (Stokes) would be getting £2,000 a year as a result of his part in the effort to restore the Duke of York to Commander-in-Chief. At the time we considered the Duke’s evidence to House of Commons there appeared to me to be a ‘case to answer’ but it was equally apparent that, had he been charged, he would quite likely be honourably acquitted for he would have responded to Mrs Clarke’s evidence with other evidence supporting his own case. I think he was the victim of a conspiracy.
London – The ministry seems to think war with America is inevitable but the British people are opposed to it. The popular toast at American dinners has become ‘free trade at the mouth of a cannon’.
Mr Wellesley Pole has been appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer in Ireland. The Wellesley family now administers Ireland, controls foreign policy and manages British affairs in Spain/Portugal.
Sat 18th Jan 1812
Caribbean news – A W Hodge, a member of the Governing Council of Tortola, one of the beautiful Virgin Islands, has been sentenced to death and executed for murdering one of his slaves.
He ordered Prosper to watch a mango tree and protect its fruit from thieves. Unnoticed by Prosper, one mango fell to the ground and was found by Hodge who required 6/- compensation or he would flog the slave. Prosper borrowed 3/- which he gave Hodge but it was insufficient. Hodge flogged Prosper for an hour administering 100 lashes. He told Prosper to bring the 3/- balance next day or he would be flogged again. Prosper was unable to get the money and was tied to a tree and flogged extensively. Eventually he stopped screaming and his head was seen to fall back. He was carried to the sick room and chained between two other patients. He remained there for 5 days and was then found missing and later located dead in the slave hall. Hodge’s Estate Manager Stephen McKeogh said Hodge told him he liked to hear the sound of the whip.
Defence Counsel called other workers from the Estate to establish that Hodge was a good employee. That regrettably backfired. Under cross-examination they revealed he had earlier killed his cook by pouring boiling water down her throat. Hodge admitted he was cruel to many of his slaves but denied murdering Prosper – I was nowhere near him when he died. He was found guilty. Six other similar charges were taken into consideration and a death sentence was handed down. He was hanged publicly. He leaves three children.
Sat 18th Jan 1812
Sir Francis Burdett is to move a new plan for the army in the next session of parliament. He says he can reduce its cost from £16 millions to £10 millions.
Sat 18th Jan 1812
The Archduke Francis, brother of the Austrian Emperor and an Anglophile hawk in this war, has secretly escaped from Vienna with his valuables and has just been brought to Malta. It is said he will travel on to Sicily.
Sat 18th Jan 1812
Napoleon has addressed his legislature on 16th June 1811 on the State of the Empire:
He says half of Europe has abandoned the Roman Catholic Church and the reason is obvious – the Pope has preferred to focus on his mundane concerns and left the spiritual guidance of Christians unserved. The truth of religion belongs to everyone. It should not be made secondary to the interests of a few families in central Italy. To end this scandal I have united Rome with Paris. The Pope is given a palace in both cities. St Paul preferred Rome to any location in the Holy Land and I have simply followed his example whilst up-dating the identity of the preferred city to account for changed circumstances.
The British government does not recognise the neutrality of any national flag on the high seas. To respond to this infraction of the Law of Nations I have taken possession of the mouths of the Ems, Weser and Elbe to prevent British smuggling into our jurisdictions. Holland and France are united in this initiative (the Netherlands has been annexed to France and the trade of the Rhine, Meuse and Scheldt is now under direct French control). I have also created an overland connection to the Baltic ports, not for territorial aggrandisement, but to extend enforcement of the Continental System to that Sea. America is trying to uphold international law concerning her overseas maritime commerce and France supports her.
I publicly express my admiration of the sovereigns of the Confederation of the Rhine. They and their Courts have been under constant British allurement. The British categorise France as an expansionary power, they say that the Confederation is of benefit only to France, implying that those sovereigns are not fully sovereign in their own countries. The Germans have recognised these simple ploys for what they are and maintained the interests of their people. Peace is what they wish for.
Britain has finally responded to the taunts of Prussia and Austria, her erstwhile allies, and changed from a manipulator and financier of European policy into a principal on the European stage. Almost her entire army is serving in Iberia and she has at last shared in the sacrifice. The parallel between Rome / Carthage and Paris / London is clear - this is another Punic War. She regularly brings reinforcements into Iberia to replace her dead and wounded. She is recognising what war is really like. An increasing number of British families are in mourning. After twenty years of eternal war, perhaps the British people will soon demand their government considers the alternative.
I present to you the national accounts for 1809. You will see I have provided the War Ministry with an extra 100 million Francs. I have no need to increase revenue. Our national finances are healthy.
Sat 18th Jan 1812
Relations between Russia and France remained uncertain at June 1811. Napoleon does not mention it in his ‘State of the Empire’ address to the Legislature (above). Russia has little revenue and no credit. The army, such as it is, is unpaid. These are the practical reasons for continued peace.
Russia has managed to obtain French recognition of her dependence on maritime trade. Her domestic economy only supplies the necessaries of everyday life. Russia is the poorest country in Europe. She has reportedly been able to argue these facts into French agreement to permit a limited trade between London and St Petersburg in neutral bottoms. This should give us a ‘foot in the door’. It was not long ago that Napoleon had to increase the licensed trade to meet the needs of his Treasury. Now Russia’s requirement of the same can hardly be refused. Letters from merchants in Berlin corroborate this information.
Sat 1st Feb 1812
The British sloop HMS Little Belt (Bingham) was cruising off the mouth of Chesapeake Bay on 16th May 1811 performing its part of the British blockade of American ports when she saw and chased the frigate USS President (Rodgers) assuming her to be a merchant ship. This is from Bingham’s report of the encounter:
Having identified her as an American 44-gun warship, Bingham put on more sail and resumed his voyage to the south. Rodgers set a pursuit course. Bingham double-shotted his guns, hoisted his colours and brought-to his ship.
Bingham hailed Rodgers and asked ‘what ship are you’ and Rodgers replied with the same question. Rodgers then fired a broadside and Bingham responded in kind. A general action ensued for 45 minutes until flames were seen coming from the main hatchway of the American warship whilst the smaller British ship was even more heavily damaged.
Rodgers again hailed and asked ‘what ship are you’ and Bingham now identified himself. Rodgers asked Bingham if he had surrendered which Bingham denied. Bingham asked the identity of the American and, so far as he could hear, the answer was ‘United States Frigate’. No further firing occurred. At dawn, the American said he would send a boat and Bingham agreed. An American naval officer came in the boat and said Rodgers ‘lamented the unfortunate affair’ and had he known HMS Little Belt was so lightly armed, he would not have fired. Bingham asked why he had fired and Rodgers’ officer claimed HMS Little Belt had fired first. The officer suggested Bingham put-in to an American port for repairs which offer Bingham declined. Bingham formed the impression that had his ship been a frigate he would have had to fight to the end. To support this he alluded to the American’s guns which were shotted not only with round and grape shot but all sorts of scrap iron. HMS Little Belt was seriously damaged and had to put back to Halifax. Bingham had 32 men killed or wounded, the latter mostly mortally.
This action resulted in the court martial of Rodgers at which all the American witnesses say HMS Little Belt commenced shooting first. Bingham denied it and the Admiralty believed him – he was promoted to Post Captain and given command of HMS Volage, a larger warship.
Rodgers told his Court Martial that British and French cruisers were harassing the trade of New York and the British had impressed an American seamen named Diggin. He took USS President out to recover the man. He thought HMS Little Belt was the involved frigate (it is a sloop) and insisted Diggin be surrendered to him. He considered the British impressment system as a form of slavery. His act was authorised by the 1783 AngloAmerican Treaty.
At the outset, Bingham fled and that made Rodgers suspicious. Bingham did not show his colours, which was more suspicious. He must have seen my pennant and known who I was, said Rodgers. When I came up on him he tried to procrastinate and I recognised he was only awaiting dusk to escape. The Court found that Bingham did not satisfactorily answer Rodger’s hail and he had opened fire first.
The British also held at Enquiry at Halifax. They located a witness William Birkett who had crewed on USS President at the time. He said a large part of the American crew were in fact British seamen. When Rodgers was talking with Bingham a group of 4-5 seamen were leaning over a cannon which suddenly fired. Thereafter the other gun crews fired a full broadside. He thought the first shot happened accidentally. He was reluctant to join-in the cover-up subsequently, deserted at New York and made his way to Halifax.
Sat 1st Feb 1812
An Address to the American People has been published by Robert Smith, the late Secretary of State, to vindicate his resignation from office:
Madison was acting against American interests in secretly promoting the French interest. America has been insulted by both England (in permitting American trade only on payment of British tax - the Order of Nov 1807) and France (the attempt to direct American foreign policy).
He advised Madison that French willingness to restore the captured American shipping in French ports was not enough – it had to be coupled with the repeal of the Berlin and Milan Decrees in respect of American trade before he could commend Congress to ban trade with England. Madison disagreed.
Smith says that before the passage of the Non-Intercourse Bill (which he calls Madison’s Bill as ‘both Acts in restraint of American trade have been misrepresented to the American people as the work of Macon when they were the project of the President’), he already had express advice from the French that they would not restore the seized American property in French ports.
Smith was equally confident that prior to the passage of the Non-Intercourse Bill, America had no information that the Berlin or Milan Decrees had been revoked. Madison’s Proclamation concerning the Non-Intercourse Bill says the Decrees had been revoked. It was untrue.
Smith says he instructed General Armstrong in June 1810 to remonstrate with Paris over continuing harassment of American trade but Madison declined to let him send the instructions. He says this was when Madison first became hostile to his Secretary of State. Instead, Madison sent a private letter to Armstrong about the seizure of American shipping in French ports but did not require the General to address the French government on the subject.
When General Serrurier arrived (the new French ambassador to America), Smith wrote to him in Feb 1811 asking if the Decrees had been revoked on 1st Nov 1810. Madison refused to approve the draft and the letter was never sent.
A second matter related to Erving, the American ambassador to London. US$22,392 had been paid to Erving by the British government as compensation to American citizens under Article 7 of the AngloAmerican treaty. It should have been sent to Washington for distribution to the claimants but Madison wrote Erving permitting him to keep the money in payment of some special services he had provided.11 Smith deplored the President dealing directly with State Department employees behind his back. He says Madison tried to buy-off his opposition with the offer of the American Embassy at St Petersburg (‘the most important and prestigious post in the gift of government’, according to Madison) but he turned it down as actually Madison only wanted to get Smith out of the Secretary’s job so he could put Monroe in.
Sat 1st Feb 1812
The French say England cannot survive a year without loans or without issuing Exchequer Bills (unfunded debt, effectively loans from the Bank of England which is obliged to buy them). She cannot make payments in money or at least in notes that are convertible to money - and the Continental System has only just begun! France on the other hand has abandoned maritime trade and lost all her colonies. She is content to trade internally with the 60 million people who reside in Western Europe. She has built numerous canals, roads and bridges to bring this huge market closer together.
Britain has for many years consistently spent more than she earns. The result is readily predictable. Her currency will constantly devalue until it is worthless. We French wish for peace but we must counter the British ministry’s aim of ‘perpetual war’ as the route to her hegemony. Once we have created a navy of 150 capital ships we can arrange peace with Britain.
Sat 22nd Feb 1812
Muir has been arrested at Dumfries on the application of M/s Kay and Freshfield, solicitors for the Bank of England. He is accused of forging a dividend warrant which the Bank paid by mistake. The lawyers neglected to issue a warrant in England and the Scottish arrest and imprisonment is deemed illegal as no offence occurred within that jurisdiction. Muir is suing them and has just been awarded damages in London. He previously got damages in Scotland in respect of the acts of the magistrate there.
Sat 29th Feb 1812
In the Commons, Whitbread asked Yorke, First Lord of the Admiralty, to confirm that his relative Sir Joseph Sydney Yorke had sailed for a foreign station and, if so, would he be vacating his Admiralty sinecure. Yorke confirmed Sir Joseph had left the country but had not resigned his job.
Whitbread thought the Board of Admiralty would be weakened by his absence. There was Lord Willington’s case as precedent for replacement. He would shortly move to replace Sir Joseph.
Sat 29th Feb 1812
Excerpts and comments on the recently published Hints by Bristed, his Letter on the Genius and Disposition of the French Government and Walsh’s Brief View of the Policy and Resources of the United States:
On 18th Dec 1807 Jefferson told his dinner companions that “Britain would cease to be a nation within two years”. British defence rests entirely on the sea – ‘the wooden walls of England’. If Napoleon had an equally powerful navy, he would have already defeated England. France is a more populous country than England. More people = more production = more revenue = more power.
Once France conquered Britain would she not also, sooner or later, seek to conquer America?
Everyone knows that a nation of unrivalled power is the enemy of us all. Napoleon is building a navy and, when he succeeds, America will be defenceless against him. France has four times our population. We could never prevail against her.
The frightening thing is that when one or other of the defeated states of Europe sought to out-manoeuvre Napoleon, as Austria or Prussia did repeatedly, they ended up with only a fraction of their former territory, population and revenue and may never recover their former glory whilst he continues to dominate Europe.
Some European countries speak of non-resistance and accommodation with France. This is absurd. Can a Corsican commoner wield power better than a King or Aristocrat who has been trained to it?
Appeals to French honour and reasonableness are hardly likely to deter Napoleon. We are humans – we do what we do because we can - we have no history of restraint in our choices of possible action.
If Napoleon has the power to effect change, he has only to suppose it is useful or progressive and he will use it. He can never be a partner, only a leader. To be sure, his arrangements in Switzerland and Poland have been beneficial to those countries. His reorganisation of the Rhineland and northern Italy make those areas more productive and tranquil. But at the end of the day one has to trust him or be destroyed. The example we should keep in mind is Holland – that country taught the English about commerce and was itself a master of European trade until the French occupation. Now the Dutch East India Company is gone and the Dutch are becoming impecunious.12
America has sprung from England. We share her laws and culture. We share in her commercial system. Every commercial country must have connections with England. She alone has the concentration of capital and the global reach to facilitate international banking and insurance services.
America’s neighbours are some of the most valuable British colonies. We are in a strong position both to benefit from our proximity to those markets and, by shared ancestry, to moderate British opinion in our favour. There should be no doubt that our future is with Britain and not France. We may have to take British commercial leavings, to work harder for our profit, but at least we will have the chance. We have tried to abandon international commerce but the New England merchants could not be restrained by law - one might as well forbid birds to fly. At least with the Atlantic under British control we have a familiar system to work under. Under French hegemony there will be no protection of property and little profit.
Whilst the Directory held sway at Paris, a plan for an American invasion was published. That plan did not contemplate a direct invasion of New England. They proposed to use shallow-draft ships to access Savannah in Georgia, Charleston & Georgetown in South Carolina, Wilmington in North Carolina - burning and destroying there before they turned to Chesapeake Bay then from Norfolk to Alexandria and Annapolis and finally to Baltimore. By that plan they could collect provisions and contributions to feed their troops and pay their way. A different plan was published under the Directory for the invasion of the south commencing at Natchez, the port of New Orleans, proclaiming the liberty of the slaves and fomenting anarchy everywhere. Ultimately the French army would arrive and land at Virginia where the democratic planters would welcome them.
The only human power that could frustrate a French invasion of America is the British navy. Our true interest is therefore to uphold British naval power. No British minister will abandon the Orders-in-Council or acknowledge our maritime claims because the Orders are the very things upon which both British and consequently our own survival is based. Our Constitution places the American government under the guidance of the mob. The mob is under the direction of the most active and enterprising of the political factions. This has led the American people to support France.
Every state has a separate government and legislature but they are not equally democratic. Vermont is the most democratic of the northern states as it annually elects people to its House of Representatives and that House is the legislature. Vermont’s executive power is in the hands of a Governor, deputy Governor and a Council of Twelve who are likewise elected annually. Anyone who is 21 years old, resident in Vermont for at least a year, who is quiet and peaceable and swears an Oath to vote in the best interests of the state is qualified to be an elector. Every 7 years the people of Vermont elect a 13-member Council of Censors to protect the Constitution. They may call a Convention if they believe the Constitution needs amendment.
Maine and Massachusetts are the least democratic northern states. An elector there must be resident for a year and have £50 property. Virginia, Kentucky and North Carolina also have property qualifications for voting, etc.
The Federal Union provides for a national House of Representatives elected for 2 years by electors who comply with the national requirements for voting. Election to this national House is virtually by universal suffrage. Each state legislature elects two people to represent it in the national Senate. One third of the Senators go out of office every two years. The President and vice-President hold great executive power. They are elected by the people of each state in a way arranged by the state legislature. It is apparent that every public officer is elected and elections are so numerous there are commonly 2-3 a year. It has been in this way that a motley group of foreigners hold some of the public offices of America and there is no requirement that they disclose their personal politics.
American elections are violent affairs and the violence seems to be proportional to their frequency. In the elections of 1809 the democrats circulated handbills in every state announcing that the British army in Spain had been conquered, French control over that country had been reasserted and Britain herself was about to be invaded - therefore all Americans should vote for Jefferson (the democratic Francophile party). A man in Maryland who had the temerity to hope that England would prevail was ‘tarred and feathered’ and one of his eyes was plucked out. His 8 assailants were arrested, tried and convicted but pardoned by the State Governor who said that enthusiasm for France should not be restrained in Maryland.
In Pennsylvania the democrats elected Simon Snyder for Governor on the grounds that he was stupid and all learning is an impediment to democracy. Snyder was then manipulated by powerful people in his state into opposing a Federal Court Order against Gideon Olmstead. He called out the state militia to confront the lone Federal process-server. This act of treason was justified by Snyder in a published article in which he applauded the militia’s action as ‘worthy of the spirit of 1776’.
The western states beyond the Allegheny Mountains are all democratic. At Nashville, Tennessee in Sept 1809 the town newspaper commended Patrick Bingley for office in the state legislature because ‘he is a lover of plunder’. Bingley wants an equal distribution of property.
Louisiana has received a torrent of immigration from Santo Domingo and Cuba with the result that there are now fourteen French to every one American. These people express an open contempt for the Federal government and the Governor of New Orleans has supported a large number of them for public office. This state may be predictably expected to oppose the Union.
The way America is going politically makes a French-style Revolution conceivable in a few years. The thing that might oppose this tendency is the steady, sober intelligence and daring enterprise of the people of the New England states. The democrats are well aware of this and that is the rationale to their policy of destroying the commerce of the north. A fully agricultural people cannot withstand a jacobinical tyranny whereas the New Englanders might.
America’s correct policy in the face of the overwhelming commercial power of England is to silently and energetically collect the means to power as a means to confront British jealousy and rivalry. In the interim, she should overlook insults she cannot punish. The policy of Washington must be continued and that of Jefferson and his successor abandoned.
We have to rise to power under the wings of British hegemony. We have constantly to mollify the British minister until our commercial power is sufficiently established as to be irreversible. If we contend with England now, we can get no advantage from our neutrality. First we collect wealth, then we achieve glory. Madison’s policy will kill us - there is a limit to the use of democracy. The American people may be well-meaning but their wishes will not progress their welfare. They suppose their political power will force public officers to disclose all the arguments for and against this or that policy but political administration works in private meetings by compromise or violence which are not good subjects for public discussion.
Washington got an earful of trite British abuse and pride but he obtained that splendid treaty on which our commercial prosperity was built for fifteen years. A short-sighted and erroneous policy forced on the government by an ignorant if well-meaning electorate is the evidence of the evil of democracy. Popular wishes should never be preferred to popular welfare. Either the form of government needs amendment or the people must be better informed. As changing the Constitution is fraught with difficulty it would be better to give the people real knowledge.
The Americans themselves say that the planters in the South maintain emissaries in the North to liaise with the French party and maintain the outcry against British tyranny and oppression. They expect to profit from a war with England. Their policies threaten the Union. The Northern states will never agree. They are more likely to secede from the Union and make a defensive alliance with England. This is the American problem – half the populace favours France and the other half favours England – we cannot fight both sides.
Sun 8th Mar 1812 Extraordinary
European news:
The King is not getting any better and parliament is to meet in October to debate removal of the restrictions on the Regency.
In Spain in July the French divided their forces. They have not been successful in digging Wellington out of the mountains. Marmont has gone North into Castille while Soult has gone South into Grenada. The British suppose Marmont favours a move against Oporto. Soult is supposed to be protecting the rear of the French army besieging Cadiz.
The British emissary’s (Augustus John Foster) mission to Washington has failed and war with America appears likely. HMS Melampus has engaged USS President and is said to have captured the American.
Sat 21st Mar 1812
The French government has not repealed the Berlin and Milan Decrees but has allowed a relaxation of their terms to American ships. All the American ships that were arrested at Bordeaux since 2nd Nov 1811 have been released. They agree to export two thirds of their cargo as silk and the balance in wines and brandy, paying the usual duties. Shortly thereafter, in June 1811, several Americans were admitted to Bordeaux.13 They were required to agree to barter and took as much in exports as they brought in imports.
What has excited the American merchants is French agreement for them to bring not only American produce but colonial goods as well.
The difficulty is how to stimulate renewed trade. The Bordeaux merchants have little capital and are very slow to sell off their purchases. The Americans, in order to get things going, have to sell at a loss. They are accepting 330 Francs a bale on cotton. All imports to France are loss-making except sugar which sells at 170 Francs free of duty. Napoleon has forbidden his Court to wear cotton garments and American cotton is heavily taxed (120 Francs a bale) at entry. Only Levant cotton sells, albeit slowly, as it is comparatively lightly taxed. American exporters should note that the French tariff does not distinguish qualities of goods - cheap cottons are taxed the same as best quality.
Sat 21st Mar 1812
Trotter, the Secretary of Charles James Fox, is publishing his diaries of Fox’s travels in the Low Countries and France in 1802.
Sat 21st Mar 1812
The 6th Edition of The Pleader’s Guide has been published by J Anstey. It is an amusing romp through the corridors of the Courts but has become so popular it is now read by a wider audience. It contains a mountain of good sense wrapped in gentle humour. Here is Anstey on bamboozling a Judge:
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Give him with fustian and bombast So thick a fog over truth to cast, With words of such due size and fitness To badger and confound a witness, That all who hear him shall confess For language, manner and address, He fairly equals in renown The choicest heroes of the gown; To puzzle e’en by explanation And darken by elucidation For puzzling oft becomes his duty And makes obscurity a beauty And, trust me, its of wondrous use By nonsense to improve abuse. |
Sat 4th April 1812
Sir William Bentinck, our man in Sicily, has returned to England for instructions. He has argued with the Queen of Naples who is ‘holidaying’ at Palermo. The problem is that government officials from Naples are oppressive and they have brought their authoritarian and corrupt methods to Sicily. Bentinck wants Sicily declared a British colony so he can establish a mild government and win the hearts of the people. If the ministry agrees, it is supposed he will be sent there as Governor.
Sat 25th April 1812
Lord William Bentinck returned to London in Sept/Oct to brief ministers on the policy of the Queen of Naples who herself directs the cabinet at Palermo and collects fees from every merchant in the City. He expects to return to Sicily very soon.
Sat 25th April 1812
A seaman named Oakey struck Capt Collier of HMS Cyane. He was charged, found guilty and sentenced to death. He pleaded for a delay of execution but was denied. Every ship in port was required to send a boat full of seamen to witness his hanging. He came on deck with his arms tied behind him, attended by the Chaplain, and the sentence of the Court Martial was read.
Then Capt Hall produced a letter from his pocket from the Prince Regent which reprieved Oakey on the prayer of Capt Collier. The news had been kept from Oakey until that moment. He fell on his knees and wept. He is to be transported for life.
Sat 2nd May 1812
When Melville died the Prince Regent intended to leave vacant the office of Lord Privy Seal of Scotland until his full regal powers had been acknowledged. The minister pressed him to appoint Lord Moira but Moira knew the Prince of Wales’s views and declined. The minister then pressed the claim of Melville’s son and the Prince of Wales approved it, subject to a special term in the patent that Dundas’ appointment becomes void once the Regent is made King.
Sat 2nd May 1812
Dr J B Trotter says Fox died prematurely as a result of taking digitalis. He was recovering from the initial attack and subsequent bleeding. He was eating and sleeping well. A doctor then told him of the good effects of this new medicine and Fox himself was keen to try it. It was administered one morning.
He then arose and washed his face and hands. He appeared to be maintaining the improvement in his condition. He had started to brush his teeth when his appearance and condition changed very suddenly and he almost fell. I managed to get him back on the bed but he went downhill from then on and died two days later.
Sat 2nd May 1812
Letter of Champigny, Duc de Cadore, the French foreign minister, dated 30th Oct 1810 containing his opinion of Britain:
Had the British Isles sunk under the sea centuries ago, Europe today would be one happy family.
Britain became an impious nation. The sacrilegious Wycliffe introduced religious innovations long before the Bohemian Huss or the Saxon Luther. Impiety is the brother of rebellion and the father of anarchy. The British distributed their spiritual poison amongst the Germans and it festered in central Europe. Since then England has never ceased to disturb the tranquillity of the continent.
They followed-up their religious attack with political attacks. Their contempt for social order allowed them to kill their King and assume the divine right themselves. How many millions of their continental brothers perished because of that evil act? They mislead with sophistry and beguile with bribes.
Napoleon has tried to bring them to the peace table almost annually but they resist. It seems indubitable that the British Constitution must be reformed to accord with those Constitutions that have been adopted by most of the states of Europe. It will require unanimity amongst Europe’s Kings to bring about this fundamental change in the English mindset. It is the divisiveness of English foreign policy that has facilitated their continual abuse and is an important source of their strength.
France proposes a new Constitution for Britain. If she agrees, her independence and dominions will be guaranteed; if she refuses, she will forever be excluded from the European family and may take her place with the piratical states of north Africa. It should be recognised that her refusal to accommodate her wishes to the whole group of nations will entail punishments. Her abuse of the neutral flag will be ended, her ships and crews will be excluded, those who smuggle for her or buy her goods will be executed, countries who trade with her will be cut-off as she is cut-off. This seeming severity is necessary because she embraces the concept of eternal war against us. It is in fact the only path to lasting peace for Europe.
The British King is a slave of his minister. For half a century he has been unable to nominate his own advisers. Only a tiny handful of the people surrounding the King can claim or deserve his trust. We have just seen his second son despicably libelled throughout the country (the sale of commissions complaint). Not one of his ministers acted to alleviate the insult. England is a country where everyman prates incessantly, impertinently and often treasonably.
When the King is not free how can the people claim their liberty? The bondage of Englishmen has become heavier as their brutal policies progress. The ruling passion of England is faction. Their efforts to divide us in Europe are reflected in their efforts to divide themselves at home. Each gang meddles in everything. Even the King is factious in his self-defence. In Greece and Rome it was the era of factions that produced the most oppressive despots.
If France was to reveal the names of those Englishmen who intrigue with their national enemies, accept bribes and take instructions from other states, the World would have a clear idea of the ubiquitous effect of faction on the political administration of that country. Its been going on for over a century. To recover honourable government, faction must be extirpated. Some few will find opportunities to mislead the ignorant but the institutionalised assumption of unrepresentative democratic government would be greatly curtailed.
They have trampled the reputation of the Duke of York in order to raise a General to supreme command of the army and bring all that patronage within their ambit. They have prevented the King from punishing the political agent F****** who should have been impeached. Another political agent Jackson who precisely carried out the King’s commands was left unrewarded and insulted. Both these injustices are due to the insidious effects of faction in government. A naval Captain brought his Admiral before a Court Martial where he was quickly and honourably acquitted but faction protected the insubordinate Captain. Have not the officers of the Madras Army seduced their soldiers to mutiny (see Chapter 25 below) and added rebellion to their original insubordination? It is faction that protects the licentious British press from responsibility. A convicted libeller (Cobbett) published inflammatory essays from his prison cell and defied the law, the Judiciary and the government but remained protected by his faction. A leader of a faction (Sir Francis Burdett MP) told his listeners that their representatives did not represent them and their country was not worth defending. He was instantly assailed and arrested by the same faction that had denigrated and abused the son of the King. This confrontation of faction by faction brought on anarchy in London like a civil war. These people are ungovernable. The Drury Lane Theatre raised its ticket prices and the whole of London was in uproar - any little thing can set them off. The Theatre was extensively damaged by those very people who lecture us endlessly about the sanctity of property.
Recently, due to British monopoly of colonial production, a surfeit of colonial goods accumulated in London warehouses. Sugar is perishable and the ministry promoted its sale to the distillers as an alternative to grain. The consequent loss of the distillers’ grain purchases alarmed the landowners and two new factions – the grain and sugar interests – instantly sprang up. There are so many of these groups that the whole country is divided and uncertain and generally licentious.
Only conciliatory national policies can save the British from the fate of the Dutch. They have little time to choose their future. They must compromise or be conquered. Napoleon has for long received the plans of various British factions to support this or that but he will not encourage the subjects of his neighbours to undermine their established Kings. Only monarchs are fit to judge monarchs.
Thurs 7th May 1812 Extraordinary
The unemployed workers of Nottingham are rioting and considerable damage has been done to the town.
Thurs 7th May 1812 Extraordinary
Some cabinet ministers are trying to remove Perceval. He is offered a Viscountcy (Viscount Hampstead) and the Duchy of Lancaster.
If he accepts, Wellesley gets the Treasury, Huskisson the Exchequer, Holland Foreign Affairs, Moira Home Affairs and Castlereagh the Colonies. Sidmouth gets President of the Council. Wellesley Pole gets the Board of Control (ousting Dundas whom the faction propose to banish to India as Governor-General)
Sat 9th May 1812
The London newspapers have been talking for months about the increasing debility of George III however it is said by insiders to be just a ministerial puff based on non-committal reports from the doctors. In fact, according to the King’s friends, he is in fine physical fettle and eats and sleeps well. His memory is clearer, both recent and long-term, and he is more often lucid than not.
Sat 9th May 1812
On 20th December the French Senate approved the conscription of 120,000 youths for 1812. It seems far too many for the predictable needs of France unless they are expecting a new war.
In 1806 Napoleon’s policy was “ships, colonies and commerce.” Today he has no colonies and little commerce but he has built an impressive and increasing fleet of ships which all remain protected from our cruisers in the shipyards and rivers. The British suppose they are for the invasion of England.
Sat 9th May 1812
27th December – Russia and Turkey are concluding their peace talks over Russian penetration into the Porte’s lands west of the Black Sea. The Turks want to get the deal signed as soon as possible because delay simply means Russia takes more. It is said the Tsar is finally willing to agree. He is thought to foresee a danger of war with France in the west and will want to secure his Turkish frontier first. The Imperial Guard has been moved to the Polish frontier.
The Austrian government has received and approved a French request to march an army through their domains to the east. This suggests that Napoleon is heading for Turkey but you never know with that chap.
Sat 9th May 1812
The Royal Navy’s impressment of American citizens is fraught with difficulties. America is a land of immigrants. You only have to swear to a Notary Public that you are born in America and you become an American. People from continental Europe, who have arrived only a week or two before, are becoming Americans before they can speak English.
The American ministry seems more amenable to a compromise on impressment now. Erskine’s proposal of 1809 concerning the USS Chesapeake affair has just been accepted by Monroe. That proposal required the King announce his displeasure with, and recall of, his officer Bingham.
Sat 16th May 1812
General Bernadotte, now the Crown Prince of Sweden, has made a military assessment of Napoleon’s abilities and decided Sweden can act with more independence. He has just refused a French request for 3,000 troops saying he is neutral in respect of trade. Napoleon will be upset by this ingratitude but the Swedish merchants are ecstatic. Napoleon’s concerns are European whilst all the officials he deals with are concerned for their own national interest alone.
Napoleon interceded with Russia on behalf of Sweden and got the Tsar’s agreement to return Finland to Sweden. Russia has continued in occupation whilst the detailed negotiations continue and has prevented progress being made in the talks. Napoleon is confronting Russia militarily and one of the matters in dispute is her definite retrocession of Finland to the Swedes – the French say that was the purpose of the requisition for 3,000 men. It is thought that the total French requisition would be eventually for about 35,000 Swedish troops. Their non-availability will strain French resources.
Reports from Hamburg say all the French garrisons in Westphalia and along the Baltic coast are being reduced 30% to provide reinforcements elsewhere. If they are for Spain then Napoleon is probably not contemplating a strike against Russia but its difficult to forecast Napoleon’s actions.
Sat 16th May 1812
The Queen has received a medical report on her husband. George III gets upset whenever Dr John Willis comes into his presence. Willis is the man who introduced the ‘carrot and stick’ approach to the King’s rehabilitation. He uses physical restraints when the King is refractory and the King hates it. He is unused to limits on his actions.
Willis says he can treat the King only when he is open to reason but, whenever he sees the Doctor, he gets emotional. This week he has refused his dinner three times. He is no doubt hungry but fasts because Willis wants him to eat.
Sat 16th May 1812
The American Non-Intercourse Act is being heralded by U S politicians as the cause of the growth of the domestic cotton manufacturing industry. They say, if the Act continues in force for one more year, the US will be self-sufficient in cotton manufacture.
It is cotton garments that found British trade with America. We take their cotton, process it and return clothing. If America was genuinely to become self-sufficient the entirety of British trade with her is threatened. Fortunately they are only able to make coarse garments at present.
Sat 16th May 1812
Heligoland, 20th December 1811 – HMS Mosquito has been blockading the mouth of the Scheldt and has just arrived here to report the departure of the French fleet that has been building at Antwerp for the last two years. She says the fleet has sailed north. Most of our Baltic fleet has returned home to refit and there is nothing except the weather to prevent the French reaching Copenhagen, if that is their destination. A French fleet in the Baltic will cause a fundamental change in the policies of Sweden and Russia and might end our northern trade.
What is worse is that our returning merchant fleet of 120 ships was dispersed by a storm in the Belt and will be vulnerable to attack.
Sat 16th May 1812
Foster, our man in Washington, has told Monroe that Britain believes the Berlin and Milan Decrees remain in force. Britain therefore sees the enforcement against her of the terms of the Non-Importation Act as an unfriendly act.
He says Britain will accordingly and reluctantly review the terms on which American trade with England and her colonies is permitted.
Sat 16th May 1812
Marybone Park is renamed Regent’s Park. It is the size of Hyde Park and Kensington Gardens together. The Regent’s Canal runs through it and will create a great lake within the park. Some prestigious villas, each on several acres of land, are to be built in the park. Each is to be constructed in a different style, picked by the owner. The Prince of Wales wants one in the Etruscan style.
A street is to be laid from Portland Place to Oxford Street and another one will run obliquely to Piccadilly. A third street will run from Carlton House to Piccadilly. A large number of old tenements will be demolished to permit these developments. The profit to the Crown after development will be about £60,000 a year, compared to £500 received at present. For this reason government is funding the development in expectation of repayment by the leaseholders later. The architect is Nash and his plan is creditable.
Sat 16th May 1812
Washington, 5th November - President Madison’s Address to Congress:
The several confirmations of the repeal of the French Decrees has not convinced the British ministry to repeal its Orders-in-Council. The British representative to USA denies any knowledge of the French revocation of the Decrees although the French say it was formally reported to London. The British say they will repeal their Orders when British goods in neutral bottoms are admitted to Europe. They also say they will retaliate against us if we do not repeal our Non-Importation Act. As a result both the indemnity and redress that we have demanded of Britain are withheld.
Their continuing unfriendliness is revealed by their acts on our coasts and even in the mouths of our harbours. USS President (Rodgers) was attacked without cause by HMS Little Belt. Rodgers demanded his role be ascertained by Court Martial and he was honourably acquitted.
Britain denies our just remedies and harasses our coasts. Effectively they have declared war on our trade. They have trampled our rights as an independent nation. They are intransigent. We must arm ourselves.
There are two aspects of individual greed that may disturb the tranquillity of our country. A considerable smuggling trade (of British goods into America) has arisen on our coast. Our Republican government represents all and a fraud on the revenue is a fraud on everyone, particularly when it is to the benefit of an unfriendly country. Secondly, too many of our shipowners are registering their ships under foreign flags and buying Licences from foreign governments to enter a trade that is forbidden to Americans.
Sat 23rd May 1812
Le Moniteur has laid out a logical concatenation that it says represents British foreign policy towards Sicily:
1/ Our defensive treaty with the King of the Two Sicilies (a Bourbon) is not an agreement with an individual but with the government of Sicily.
2/ the government of Sicily has suspended some laws and is no longer the same entity with whom we contracted.
3/ We are relieved of any obligations to it.
4/ the suspended laws make Sicily hostile to us.
5/ a country that defends another is ipso facto the proprietor of that defended country.
6/ Britain defends Sicily and is its proprietor.
The French say this is the legal background to the reported British intention to induct Sicily into the British Empire.
Sat 30th May 1812
There are now 12,000 British prisoners in France. There have been no exchanges since the negotiations at Morlaix failed. The British government is not allowed to support the prisoners directly but charitable donations are allowed.
Sat 6th June 1812
The butcher Bainbridge has sued the milkman Wyatt for 6/9d being the cost of a leg of lamb that Bainbridge provided to Wyatt.
Facts – Wyatt arrived at the butcher’s shop on the evening of Saturday 9th Nov and after queuing patiently sought to order the meat. Wyatt has a speech defect and stuttered for so long that Bainbridge was prevented from serving the other waiting customers. Neither could he understand what Wyatt was asking for. Eventually he told Wyatt “if you speak plainly, I will give you what you want”. Wyatt then gave his order in a rhyming song, the last line of which was “I want a leg of mutton”, and Bainbridge, in front of many customers, gave him the meat. Later Bainbridge became suspicious that Wyatt was incomprehensible until the offer of free meat was made, whereafter he spoke intelligibly, albeit in rhyme. He then commenced this action.
The Judge of the Court of Requests concluded that Wyatt had earned his mutton and gave judgment with costs to the defendant.
Sat 6th June 1812
Long account of the destruction of the Mamalukes in Egypt and a suggestion of British perfidy.
Sat 6th June 1812
Lloyd’s Names held a Meeting on 6th June 1811 to consider means of better regulating their business. They met again on 31st July and 15th Aug and the proceedings are now published. The extraordinary meeting was called to reassure Names concerning the immense losses sustained by underwriters pursuant on the loss of the Baltic convoy of 700 ships. Names were provided with a perceptive analysis of the Licensing System:
Lloyd’s Underwriters were emboldened by their success in insuring ships and cargoes with simulated papers on voyages from English ports to ports of the enemy. We increased our investment in these hazardous enterprises until an unprecedented amount of British capital was in Baltic ports whereupon Napoleon confiscated the lot. Lloyd’s paid out £6 millions. Underwriters at the outports and the two Chartered marine insurance companies were also involved in this market and their claims payments were also quite substantial. The amount of this loss to the British economy is a gain to the French.
In the Spring of 1810, before the Baltic was re-opened to our commerce, Perceval foresaw that the French would be attracted by the extent of British trade and proposed, instead of risking our ships in enemy ports, that we take an island in the Baltic as a depot to which the enemy might come for supplies. Had we warehoused our goods on such a secure island, not only might we have continued our trade without risk, but we would also have been able to freight the goods there in British bottoms. This would have transferred an immense amount of freight from foreign ships to British ships, although it would have ended the government’s revenue from the sale of Licences. Perceval’s advice was ignored as a majority of the cabinet preferred a licensing system.
It seems that Underwriters assumed that some good level of understanding existed between HM Government and the Baltic powers. This supposition accounts for the absence of underwriting precautions on the policies issued. Those policies were unusual in two ways. They insured the goods not, as is normal, until landed but until delivered into the consignee’s warehouse; and they agreed to pay a total loss on receipt of advice of seizure without waiting for the documentation evidencing condemnation.
Whilst underwriters were misled by government in this way, exporters assumed the new clauses perfectly secured them and leapt into this new field with avidity. Mercantile speculations increased exponentially until the French acted.
Even the weather opposed British interests for fleet after fleet was delayed at Gothenburg by contrary winds until 700 sail had assembled there and it was these ships that Admiral Saumarez took through the Sound to enter the Baltic ports more or less contemporaneously. They were then instantly arrested. Underwriters, merchants, manufacturers and small traders have all been ruined.
Lloyd’s Names have indicted the Licensing System as the cause of this catastrophe. It places too much British property in the hands of the enemy; it provides occupation to 50,000 foreign seamen who crew the ships; it costs British exporters £10 millions in specie annually in freight, which is the cause of the absence of gold and silver in the Bank of England and the depreciation of our paper currency in the foreign exchanges, and, most importantly, it diminishes the principle on which the Orders-in-Council are founded. The Licensing System gives to France both circulation and value. The early Orders set up a retaliatory regime founded on necessity and self-defence whilst this latest Order barters those advantages for licensing fees.
Perhaps someone has calculated how much self-defence we can afford to commute for cash. Two incompatible spirits are at work in this country’s ministerial cabinet. The recent Order might have been done in consideration of American complaints but they have themselves said it adds insult to injury. The first Orders were a defensible interference with the rights of neutrals whereas this licensed trade with the enemy appears to be solely a commercial thing. Had England rigidly adhered to the first Orders we might have carried our point and achieved an amendment of the Law of Nations. The licensed trade has relieved France from pressure, supplied her with necessaries (the lack of which was our sole chance of having the Decrees repealed) and promoted her exports.
Russian trade provides a particularly good example. Last year our goods in Russian ports were confiscated. Russia expected that no more British licences would be granted. This Spring she prepared her own licences for import of British manufactures and colonial goods in exchange for her staple exports. Then she discovered the new British licences continued to be issued, permitting the importation of Russia goods, and without any stipulation in return. The concessions that Russia was volunteering were not required by us. Clearly Russia had expected our retaliatory system to operate but it did not. One may reasonably conclude that, had we rigidly adhered to retaliation, it would have been equally effective against France. A wavering policy by our ministers has abandoned the object of the Orders-in-Council whilst a resolute policy by Napoleon has obtained the object of his Decrees.
We will now tabulate the extent of this disaster in monetary terms:
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British property confiscated in enemy ports Depreciation in value of 60,000 tons of coffee Depreciation in the value of foreign sugar Depreciation in the value of 250,000 bales cotton Depreciation in the value of East India goods Depreciation in the value of manufacturers’ stock Depreciation in the value of metals Depreciation in the value of canal and dock shares Depreciation in the value of British shipping
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£8,000,000 £5,000,000 £2,000,000 £2,500,000 £4,000,000 £4,000,000 £1,000,000 £12,000,000 £7,500,000 £46,000,000 |
The depreciation on goods is ascertained from the decline in Prices Current. The depreciation of share prices is from the Stock Exchange. The depreciation in ship values is ascertained from recent sales.
The country should be in no doubt that the Continental System is working and British commerce is feeling its pressure. Commercial distress has occurred and government revenue will predictably fall. The Committee of Lloyd’s believes the country’s best policy is to return to and vigilantly uphold the principle of retaliation on which the early Orders were based. Only thus can we incite a general feeling of distress on the continent and destabilise French support.
We have not mentioned the morality of the Licensing System. The root of commerce is trust, founded on the integrity and morality of the people involved. We are constrained to say that every Licence granted to a foreign ship is not merely a Licence to commit forgery, perjury and bribery but an obligation to commit those crimes. Forgery commences with simulated papers printed in England but purporting to be Clearance Certificates from some foreign port that is unobjectionable to France. These require the forged seals and signatures of the foreign Customs House staff and Consul to be inserted. We have become so expert in this work that our facsimiles cannot be distinguished from originals. The perjury occurs at destination where the Master, and commonly several of his officers and crew, must swear the ship actually came from the place stated on the facsimile documents. Bribery involves both those crew who are required to perjure themselves and the Customs officers who investigate the documentation. Our political leadership consider all this as a harmless ruse de guerre. In fact there is increasing evidence that the people involved, once accustomed to deceit, use it indiscriminately for their personal gain. Thus the poisoned chalice returns to our own lips.
Lloyd’s has itself experienced this decline in morality. We give a single representative example. A reward of £100 is being offered in the newspapers for the arrest of Hermanus Vos, lately a merchant of Portland Place, for forging a letter from Amsterdam to induce underwriters to pay him a total loss, which was paid. Vos is a polished man of liberal education, well known in the finest circles of London society. He has all along been trading with the enemy and it seems a reasonable deduction to believe the licensing system induced his crime.
Underwriters have it in their power to collapse this licensing system by not insuring the goods and ships that conduct it. The best foundation of national prosperity is the protection of the British flag and the integrity of the commercial classes. We commend all underwriters to act accordingly.14
Sat 13th June 1812
The Committee of Foreign Relations of the American Congress has concluded in Dec 1811 that the choices facing their country are war with England or submission. The Chairman is Porter.
The Committee prefers war as members are reasonably confident of taking Canada and that will more than indemnify them for the mercantile losses they have experienced in Europe.
They say Spring is the time to start war and they should recruit soldiers to complete their military establishment before then. The subject of the size of military establishment was divisive with proposals varying from 15,000 – 50,000 men.
Meanwhile, an embargo for 90 days is laid on all shipping still in American ports.
Sat 13th June 1812
The New Quarterly Review commenced business in Nov 1811. The Editor believes existing journals are unsatisfactory. The Edinburgh Review is, he says, a moral and political rag at odds with majority opinion in the country. The Quarterly Review is indecisive and has fallen under the influence of a gang of speculative politicians who are too few to form a party. The British Review is also indecisive and is connected with the views of visionary philanthropists whose opinions have already done damage to several West Indian colonies. It lacks an appreciation of the importance of commerce.
Editor Courtenay of the New Quarterly Review refers to the large number of small parties in parliament. He does not explain. We suppose he means:
The group of 6 peers and 3 commoners under Lord Sidmouth (Addington) who have good intentions but little talent; they are somewhat aligned with the Grenvillites but have fundamental differences with both Grenville and the Fox party on policy.
Sidmouth is best known for his opposition to the seizure of the Danish fleet at Copenhagen. It is believed in London that, if we had not done it, Napoleon would have taken the ships himself, but Sidmouth continues to deplore the incident.
He is an honourable man but not the brightest star in the firmament. Both Pitt and Grenville supported him as Prime Minister after the former resigned. He was persuaded to join in the senseless outcry against Melville and ultimately joined with Fox to the consternation and disapproval of George III. Perhaps his most important contribution was in defence of the established church against the growth of sectarianism.
Canning’s ‘little senate’ of Leveson Gower, Sturges Bourne, Huskisson and Dent (with one or two others) is another faction. Dent of course is the fiscal wizard who proposed the dog tax with its distinction of working dogs and pleasure dogs which the ministry ignored and taxed all alike. Canning’s group is mainly concerned for the accumulation of their power. Canning was educated politically by the friends of Fox with the idea of inducting him into their group, but he took a different path and came into office under Pitt. That gave him the opportunity to rise from an inferior job at the Foreign Ministry to its command but he was unable to satisfactorily resolve his relationship with Castlereagh and it became generally supposed from his inconsistency then that he wanted Perceval out and Lord Wellesley in as Prime Minister with himself continuing at the FO and Huskisson as Chancellor. They may have been capable ministers but this line-up would never have obtained the approval of the House. In any event Canning and three of his supporters resigned and that was an end to it.
Wilberforce can sometimes command up to thirty MPs – the Thorntons, Babington and that group of religious people, Bankes and Stephens (before he was made a Master in Chancery). The great thing about Wilberforce is that he always votes with his conscience. Bankes is the same but he is so keen on economy, except in his own lifestyle, that he annoys everyone. It is Bankes who has almost single-handedly introduced the present predilection of appointing Committees to review costs of departments. Ultimately the thrust of Bankes’ economies is to weaken the King who needs to reward meritorious service. This idea of economy is contemptible empiricism – an attempt to obtain popularity by opposing customary expenditure and diminishing the authority of ministers.
These groups keep aloof from the parties and from each other.
The fourth group is Sir Francis Burdett’s group of democrats. They are six.
Sat 13th June 1812
Trotter’s Life of Fox details the statesman’s life during the short peace with France. During Fox’s visit to Paris, Napoleon conducted a review of some 6,000 troops and Fox ignored it completely, preferring to chat with Markoff, the Russian ambassador to France. He always hated ostentation. Afterwards Fox with Lord Holland, Lord R Spencer, Lord St John, Adair and Trotter all went to the levee in the Tuilleries. There was a sense of unreality in this meeting in the palace of the Bourbons.
Merry, the British ambassador, by his actions recognised the reign of Napoleon. As the representative of Britain, doing his best to interfere in French domestic politics, it was unreal. Merry was presented with a magnificent set of china for his boss, the Foreign Minister Lord Hawkesbury. Had Pitt been there and thought of history he would have been struck by the parallel with England under Cromwell, a situation that evolved through precisely similar foreign interference.
The Spanish ambassador d’Azara asked Fox what he thought of it. They spoke of the flow of art treasures from Italy to Paris. The Turkish ambassador was there sitting cross-legged on a sofa. His suite spoke in fluent French. Lucchesini, the Prussian ambassador, formerly a clerk to the minister, was dressed like a tropical bird in stark contrast to Livingston, the American ambassador, who wore very plain clothes.
Napoleon said to Fox “In you I see with much satisfaction that great statesman who recommended peace because there was no cause for war; who saw Europe desolated to no purpose and who struggled for its relief.” Fox did not reply. Napoleon has grey eyes, strange for a Corsican.
The next day Fox visited Abbe Sieyes about 12 miles out of Paris. He has a grand estate there granted to him by the consular government for services. Fox did not appear to hold any high opinion of him.
On 23rd Sept Fox dined with Napoleon. For a change, it was Napoleon who dominated the conversation. Fox did not appear to doubt Napoleon’s wish for peace. Napoleon was annoyed by those members of Pitt’s ministry who had tried to kill him, particularly the bomb plot, and told Fox he reproached Windham whom he said was involved in it. Fox said he could not believe any British minister would stoop to assassination.
On another occasion Fox dined with Talleyrand at Neuilly. Several émigrés attended. They were those who had submitted to the new regime and hoped for the restoration of their lands and fortunes. They were completely ignored by Talleyrand. Trotter sat close to them and was distressed. The plight of the Duc d’Uzeze, head of one of the ancient families of France, was particularly poignant. Fox’s amiability and his facility with French, Italian and Spanish were admired.
Another dinner was with Perregaux the wealthy banker who was still overwhelmed with astonishment that he had survived the reign of Robespierre.
Mon 22nd June 1812 Extraordinary
The message of the American President to Congress seems to say that the French Decrees, at least in respect of America, are ended. The President therefore expected the British Orders to be likewise repealed at least in respect of American ships. Putting his country in a state to fight a war will require loans.
It is estimated in London that America will need about $3 millions more annual revenue than it has. This is a real problem. Getting money to fight England really means going to London for it. Money from English bankers to fight England will be expensive, indeed, the Secretary of State has warned that rates may exceed the legal maximum under the U S Usury law.15
Mon 22nd June 1812 Extraordinary
London news, January 1812:
The London bank Boldero Lushington & Co has failed.
Baron Gibson, late British Consul at Danzig, has died. His estate of £50,000 has been confiscated by the French.
Lord William Bentinck has returned to Sicily with a plan for a new Constitution which will displace the influence of ‘the French party’.16 Many people have since been arrested and support for Britain has increased.
Mon 22nd June 1812 Extraordinary
France has occupied Swedish Pomerania and the Isle of Rugen. Stralsund was occupied on 26th Dec. Bernadotte cannot be surprised but the Tsar is alarmed.
Mon 22nd June 1812 Extraordinary
The Prince of Wales has written to the Duke of York saying he is ready for monarchy and he wants Grey and Grenville to be informed. They have replied to York that it is impossible for them to join the present government. They remind him of their disclosures in 1809 and 1810 when he previously asked them to form a ministry. They can assume office only on a program to grant Catholic emancipation.
Mon 22nd June 1812 Extraordinary
Whitbread accused Lord Wellesley of contempt for America and asked for all the official correspondence between the parties to be tabled.17 The ministry easily defeated this 136/23. The Chancellor of the Exchequer then successfully moved that Wellesley’s annuity from government be doubled.
Mon 22nd June 1812 Extraordinary
The Prince of Wales intends one of the two vacant blue ribbons for the liberal Duke of Norfolk. George III will have a relapse when he hears about it.
Mon 22nd June 1812 Extraordinary
A new Household Bill has passed. The old King’s household is reduced to 28 people to be named and controlled by the Queen. The Civil List is augmented £70,000 a year to meet these reduced costs. They are separate from the incoming King’s costs. A further £10,000 a year is to be paid to the Queen from the Duchy of Lancaster for her personal needs.
The Exchequer will pay the Regent £120,000 a year but £70,000 is earmarked for settlement of his debts and he gets only £50,000. Its all free of income tax. Thus George IV will be getting £50,000 less from parliament than George III.
Mon 22nd June 1812 Extraordinary
Our man Foster in Washington has belatedly asked Castlereagh, the new Foreign Minister, for a modification of the Orders-in-Council otherwise he fears the worse.
He requests their total abrogation in certain circumstances. He believes these measures essential to pre-empt the likelihood of war.
Sat 27th June 1812
Sir Francis Burdett proposed a reply to the Regent’s Address to Parliament which is rather outspoken, even for that gentleman:
The valour and resources of this country have been lavished for 18 years in preventing the oppressed from gaining freedom. The grasp of despotism and persecution has hardened. In distant regions we have overturned one despotism only to resurrect our own version of it in its stead in order to maintain corruption at home. Only in those countries where people understand their rights have we been opposed. All our former allies have disclaimed a connection with us. They have spent hundreds of millions in support of our formidable and unprincipled league until, at last, we fight alone.
Now our own country is devastated and our resources almost exhausted by the sacrifice required to maintain those European sovereigns who cannot rely on the support of their own people. The British people condemned this crusade at the outset, well knowing that a war on the freedom of others was an attack on their own freedoms. A system of terror was resorted to by successive ministries - false alarms excited, spies and informers hired, the offence of ‘constructive sedition’ created, new-fangled treasons invented, the safeguards of personal liberty removed, forts (called barracks) were erected throughout the land and the freedom of everyman was placed at the disposal of those officials who call themselves servants of the King but are in fact agents of a rapacious oligarchy.
Under this system most of our treasured freedoms have been swept away. In the name of revenue collection and in the guise of legal proceedings, the dwellings of Englishmen have been entered, their books scrutinised by numberless mercenary agents appointed by the Crown. Financial rapacity has been created between landlord and tenant as the Crown has deemed itself co-proprietor of every estate with a prior claim on the tenant’s funds in the name of the Land Tax. A vast acreage of landed property has been confiscated under this pretext. Using the pretence of Stamp Duty, the oligarchs have seized on the bequests of the dead in their passage to the living so that there is no longer a man in England who can be said to be the proprietor of anything. Property of every description is now controlled by the minister.
With these changes have come changes in our military designed to relieve the soldier of all fellow-feeling for his neighbour. He is now isolated in barracks and depots, flogged for trifling offences, and incrementally disabused of the rights he formerly had under the Constitution. He has been conditioned to act as the instrument of tyranny. Mistrustful of the full effectiveness of this conditioning of the soldiery, the ministry has brought 30,000 German and other nationals into the British army with privileges not possessed by any British soldier. Today large portions of the army and whole districts of the country are under the command of German officers. Many of our regiments have been obliged to wear German uniforms. The English militia, which has long been a bastion of Englishness, became suspect and was swapped with the Irish militia to create two instruments of reciprocal oppression. Our English militia in Ireland has been brutalised by applying Martial Law on the benighted citizens of that country. Enrolment in these local militias has introduced everyman in England to the system of army discipline we practise and the daily use of the lash.
Having brought the cowed populace into submission, the ministry was opposed by only the press which then became the object of its vengeance. The unconstitutional use of ex officio Informations by the AG and the selection of Jury men, have been mentioned before; but more recently we had Lord Ellenborough publicly anticipating guilt before he had heard the defence case. The sentencing policy for political libels has become incrementally heavier until today they outweigh the awards for the majority of felonies – heavy fines, long imprisonments in jails remote from the convict’s home and relatives, solitary confinement, onerous terms for good behaviour bonds that are the necessary pre-condition for release – we have recreated the Court of Star Chamber with the trifling difference that Star Chamber had no juries whereas the Crown now picks an accommodating one for itself, and to somewhat protect a political judge from public recognition of his factious character.
We bring these ills to the attention of Your Highness with the observation that the sole underlying cause of all our problems is the lamentable state of the representation. If the people were genuinely represented their grievances would be addressed. The 18 years of war with France have empowered ministers to reduce Constitutional rights, sink the country in huge debts and cultivate corruption. They have permitted rapacity in the Prize Courts, ruined manufacturing and commerce and created vast numbers of paupers whose poverty, when compared with those pensioners and placemen on whom so much public money has been lavished, should not endure a moment were it not for the ready availability of military force to the ministry.
Sat 4th July 1812
Burdett has again been criticising the war effort. He has moved another Answer to the Regent’s Address after his first (above) sunk without support:
The £12 millions we spent in Spain every year is wasted. The Spanish Cortes holds only 2-3 towns in the entire country.
In Sicily since 1805 we pay the Court £300,000 every year and pay £1.5 millions for the upkeep of our troops and in return the Court of the Two Sicilies in exile at Palermo intrigues and conspires against us.
With America we have waged a commercial war over the Orders which we say are imperative to maintain our maritime supremacy. The Americans think those Orders are negotiable. Why have they not been told the truth. After the Berlin and Milan Decrees were announced, we passed an Order on 11th Nov 1807 which, given the elimination of the trade of the other maritime nations, was directed at America and was an attempt by us to solicit American mercantile support in amending their government policy and obtaining French approval for the import of our colonial goods in American bottoms into Europe.
The number of British people under arms now approximates 807,000 including the militias. The entire population of England is 8 million plus 2 million for Ireland. One tenth of our population (20% of our manpower) has been removed from agriculture and manufacturing and put into barracks.
The national debt passed £600 millions in 1811, etc.
Whitbread and Tierney supported Burdett’s amended Answer and many of the formerly-submissive country MPs as well but the debate was lost 209/136.
Sat 27th June 1812
The Regent has again asked Grenville and Grey (via the Duke of York) to form a part of the ministry and they still say they must have his agreement to Catholic emancipation before they can join. He is known to be personally agreeable to it. Certainly the Irish expect him to grant it.
Sat 11th July 1812
The Licensing System seems to be relieving distress in the City. By mid February coffee had advanced by 12/- per cwt and sugar 2/- per cwt due to extensive orders from Europe. There is a mercantile supposition that peace between Turkey and Russia will allow the latter to renounce the Continental System and open a trade route for us into eastern Europe.
Sat 11th July 1812
The practise of graffiti has revived in London. Recently (Feb 1812) many bare walls were seen chalked with “Lord Holland and Peace”
Sat 11th July 1812
The Regent wishes to promote education amongst the children of soldiers. It appears to be an emulation of ancient Persia.18 General Officers, Regimental Colonels and Commanders of Corps are all required to nurture Regimental Schools. The children’s’ minds are to be impressed at an early age with order, regularity and discipline based on a veneration for the established British religion. The schools are to be conducted on military principles following the system of Dr Bell, which has been successfully employed at the Royal Military Asylum. The teachers will be Sergeants. Bell’s system has the children conducting much of the daily business of the school themselves. Girls may also partake if circumstances permit.
Army chaplains are also required to nurture these schools by frequent visits, by critical scrutiny of teachers’ activities and regular reporting to COs.
The purpose is twofold – to relieve the soldier of concern for the education of his children and to inculcate bravery and loyalty in the children.
Sat 11th July 1812
Sicily – the French party at the Court of Palermo has been arrested. They are all being boarded and lodged by the British government. Four Calabrians were reported to be acting suspiciously in San Leo. We caught them in bed, killed one and wounded two more. The fourth escaped but was taken nearby. They confessed they were sent by the army of Calabria to assassinate a British officer. We hanged one named Musolino. Another named Crisera will be hanged as soon as he recovers from his wounds. The third, Rietano, is needed to give evidence in a Court case concerning the planned theft of Bentinck’s dispatches.
Sun 12th July 1812 Extraordinary
The Swedes say they welcome the French into Stralsund and Pomerania but they have also commenced to fortify the islands of Rugen and Bornholm. The parliament has been summoned to meet on 4th April 1812. This is exceptional as Swedish law only permits one meeting every three years.
Sun 12th July 1812 Extraordinary
Russian negotiations with Turkey at Bucharest are making no progress. So far they have an agreement not to recommence fighting without one month’s notice.
Sun 12th July 1812 Extraordinary
Perceval has warned the Prince Regent that Catholic exclusion is a fundamental ministerial policy and cannot be changed. He is said to have offered his resignation if the Regent disagreed. He seems bigoted but at least he is frank about it. Patently there is another power centre that opposes emancipation as much as the King. The Catholics now know that whilst Perceval is in office there is no prospect of their burdens being alleviated. That will influence the Irish vote.
The Regent also wanted Perceval to invite some of the liberal Whigs into the ministry but they have all refused and Perceval is not keen. So long as the people remain apathetic he should prevail.
Sun 12th July 1812 Extraordinary
The ministry is hoping to form a 6th coalition against France. They rely on Russia and Sweden and possibly Prussia.
Sun 12th July 1812 Extraordinary
A deputation of Birmingham merchants has interviewed Perceval and reported their distress due to the Orders-in-Council. Perceval said they had made a strong case but there was nothing he could do.
Levison Gower told parliament on 4th March that he had received a petition signed by thousands of distressed manufacturers and workers in Staffordshire addressed to the Prince Regent which he was required to deliver personally. Since then there had not been a Levee for three weeks. Lord Milton is in the same position with a petition of the people of Yorkshire. Levison Gower suspected ministers were taking advantage of the King’s illness to deny the people their Constitutional channel to notify grievances.
Sun 12th July 1812 Extraordinary
The 3% consols are trading at 60 – 60½
Sat 18th July 1812
In 17th Century, the Scottish Church was Episcopal. At that time the Episcopal Church had 2 Archbishops, 12 Bishops and 900 clergy. After the Dutch occupation, William and Mary abolished Episcopacy and substituted Presbytery. Most of the Episcopalians refused to take the Oath and were replaced by Presbyterians. Nevertheless, the Episcopalians had the confidence of the people and this reduced group continued to minister to the Scots although both clergy and laity were acting illegally. This continued until 1792 when the proscription on Episcopalians was legislatively withdrawn.
The only serious difficulty for the Episcopalians was the lack of a confessional. This was remedied in 1804 when the Scottish Bishops adopted the 39 articles of the Church of England. Now the old Episcopalian Bishop of Edinburgh, the prelate of the Scottish Church, has requested permission to resign and an English clergyman has been appointed to replace him.
Sat 18th July 1812
Benjafield was the Editor of the London Morning Post. He published an article about the Prince of Wales and a certain lady. The ministry threatened to prosecute him but he was not afraid. They then bought him out.
When the ministry’s nominee Weltje bought the shares of Morning Post, Benjafield was removed. At the same time the Commissioners for liquidating the Prince of Wales’s debts commenced paying a gentleman named Tattersall an annuity which that man routinely forwards to Benjafield. Tattersall demanded a Bond of the Commissioners in £10,000 as security for his liability under the annuity to Benjafield. The Prince of Wales provided this Bond.
Recently Benjafield has been negotiating to exchange his annuity for a ‘place’ in the gift of the ministry. He has been offered a place but rejected it. His complaint is that his annuity is now subject to the new Income Tax and has become less valuable. Benjafield says he must receive the contractually agreed amount or he will complain.
Sat 1st Aug 1812
Liverpool town council 30th Jan – Poor Relief Return for January 1812:
|
|
|
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Families |
Persons |
|
|
Week ending |
3rd January |
2,263 |
8,828 |
|
|
|
10th January |
3,156 |
11,265 |
|
|
|
17th January |
3,824 |
13,856 |
|
|
|
24th January |
4,248 |
15,350 |
The towns of Lancashire, Yorkshire, Staffordshire and Nottinghamshire are much the same. In Scotland, Glasgow and Paisley are similarly affected.
Sat 15th Aug 1812
Earl Grey has spoken eloquently in House of Lords in late March on what he sees as the main issues of the day.
He says the ministerial attempt to influence popular opinion against the Catholics is evil. The war in the peninsula is going badly - the French have occupied a series of towns in the south and Wellington (with 62,000 men) is on the defensive. Finally there is an influence behind the throne which parliament should condemn and he, Grenville and the others will not take office until the House of Commons agrees to bring an end to it.
There is an attempt by several parliamentarians to form a united ministry. Mulgrave and Harrowby said there is no usurper in the cabinet but Moira agreed the ministry must be changed.
Sat 15th Aug 1812
The maritime rights of neutrals were fixed in 1713 by the Treaty of Utrecht which was signed and ratified by England, France, Holland, Portugal, Prussia and Spain and formed the basis to international law on the subject.
The Treaty provides that:
The ship’s flag covers the cargo – enemy goods under a neutral flag are neutral goods; neutral goods under an enemy flag are enemy goods.
The protection of a neutral flag does not extend to contraband, arms & ammunition or military stores.
When a belligerent’s ship visits a neutral ship on the high seas it will stay out of cannon reach. The visit is made by a few men only.
Neutral ships may trade from an enemy port to an enemy port or from an enemy port to a neutral port.
The ports disallowed to a neutral are those under real blockade i.e. invested, besieged and likely to be taken, to which access is dangerous.
These terms have been incorporated in every subsequent treaty that involves maritime rights. The British assert this agreement was modified in the Seven Years War by the Rule of 1756 which disallowed a wartime trade to a neutral that had been unavailable to him in peacetime, e.g. trade with European colonies that was restricted to the mother country in peacetime, could not be engaged in by neutrals in war. The development of International Law is achieved by war, the victor getting his amendments incorporated. The Rule of 1756 was thus also adopted in international law after 1763 but is irrelevant to the instant matter.
The Order-in-Council of 16th May 1806 proscribed all neutral maritime trade. The Orders of 1807 permitted neutrals to again trade provided they came to Britain before continuing on to destination. This made London the commercial capital of the world (by becoming the entrepot for all colonial goods available to neutrals) and made international trade contribute to British costs of war. It was welcomed by British merchants and politicians as the route to global hegemony.
Napoleon’s Berlin Decree of Nov 1806 responded to the Order of May 1806 by blockading British trade to Europe; the Milan Decree of Dec 1807 responded to the Order of Nov 1807 by denationalising every neutral ship that visited England or paid British tax. Effectively France was conceding all trade to England but denying her a market in the territories she could influence – the Continental System. This caused great amounts of British capital, that had been invested in colonial goods and manufacturing, to become frozen in the warehouses of England and gave birth to the great smuggling trade and the Licensing system that have characterised recent years of the war. Smuggling caused the incorporation of the Netherlands in France and the occupation of the Hanseatic towns by French garrisons to close the popular smuggling routes of the English. This gave birth to the Licensed trade which was an acknowledgement of the failure of the British restrictive policy.
The British ministry overlooks the Order of 1806 and categorises the Order of 1807 as retaliation for the Berlin Decree, and the consolidated Order of 1809 as retaliation for the Milan Decree, thereby affecting an apparently responsive national posture.
Sat 22nd Aug 1812
The Livery of London wishes to petition the Regent. They asked him if they could present their petition in person as usual. He said he would have to follow Ryder’s advice (the Secretary of State). Ryder told them their petition would be received like any other petition from town and country. All the other petitions have been via members of House of Lords or Commons which the ministry intercepts.
Sat 22nd Aug 1812
Under the Licensing system, French wine and brandy is brought to England. The wine is taxed at £5 per ton; brandy £10 per ton. After the duty is paid the goods are to be sealed in the ship until the commensurate quantity of sugar and coffee has been exported. Then the importer must export the wine but he may sell the brandy in England if he wishes (there is no substitute for French brandy).
Sat 22nd Aug 1812
The merchants of Manchester and Salford wish to call a meeting to agree a wording for a Petition to the Regent. 154 merchants called the meeting at the Exchange Buildings. In the meantime the Petition of the Livery of London that could not be presented to the Regent is circulating in the country and the people of Manchester also decided to Petition - they have not done that before.
As a result the merchants’ of Manchester postponed their meeting. They first tried to find an alternative venue where they would not be disturbed by the common people but failed. Nevertheless, a great mass of working men assembled at the Exchange Buildings at the appointed time. They broke into the Buildings and trashed them. Many valuable items were broken. The army was called, the Riot Act read and the crowd was dispersed. A few arrests were made.
Sat 22nd Aug 1812
Berlin, 21st March. The King of Prussia seems to be recovering from his long depression. He recently attended a concert and a ball given for the Princess dowager of Orange and seemed to enjoy himself.
Sat 22nd Aug 1812
A meeting is to occur at the Saxon capital of Dresden on 12th April between the Emperors of Russia, Austria and France. To support his negotiating position vis-à-vis the Tsar, Napoleon has sent 30,000 Bavarians to pass through Dresden en route for Warsaw. They will be followed by 10,000 Wurtemburgers. Finally an Italian corps and a French army are also expected to pass through.
Peace between Russia and Turkey remains elusive. The Russian troops are in defensive positions in Wallachia and Moldavia.
Sat 22nd Aug 1812
13th April - Richard Spooner has led a delegation of Birmingham merchants to demand the repeal of the consolidated Order-in-Council of April 1809. Perceval said it cannot be done. Rose said France and England are like two men with their heads in a bucket of water – its just a matter of who can hold-out longest. That overlooks a material fact - the economy of France is far less dependent on trade than we are.
Sat 22nd Aug 1812
Stock prices today (early April) – 3% Consols 60, 3% reduced 59.
Tues 6th Oct 1812 Extraordinary
John James Bellingham, a failed merchant from Liverpool, waited in the lobby of the House of Commons on 11th May and when Perceval arrived at about 5 pm, he shot the Chancellor through the heart. Perceval died instantly in the arms of his brother Lord Arden. Bellingham said he wished he himself was dead too.
A witness Spottiswood saw two tall men running unusually fast through Westminster Hall immediately after the sound of the shot. Because of the timing and their speed he wondered if they were connected with the shooting. No-one corroborated Spottiswood.
Couriers were dispatched throughout the country to announce the event.
It was General Gascoigne who identified the murderer. Others said they had seen him in the gallery recently. Bellingham had a second loaded pistol which he surrendered. He confessed that personal resentment had motivated his act. His business failed over a year ago for which he blamed the political administration of the country generally and not Perceval specifically.
The House of Lords was hearing mercantile petitions against the Orders-in-Council at the time.
Castlereagh started to question the murderer but then thought better of it saying he should tell it to the Judge. Bellingham said once he had decided to act, he watched the Commons for two weeks to see how best it could be accomplished. His decision was prompted by the most recent ministerial rejection of his claims. It had been a heated meeting after which he had been told to ‘go away’ and do whatever mischief he liked. He felt no remorse. He said he acted with justice.
His particular grudge concerned services he had provided to government in connection with his Russian trade, services which had never been recompensed. He had petitioned Perceval, the Speaker, General Tarleton and some others for payment but had always been rejected. On the last occasion, a fortnight before the murder, he had petitioned the Secretary of State and had an interview with his clerk Becket. He had also written several letters.
Six weeks earlier he had been accused in Bow Street Magistracy in respect of a complaint from the Governor of Archangel that was sent to Riga and forwarded to London. He said the Russian accusation was unjustified and he wanted redress. Before Bellingham could say anything more to the Magistrate, Castlereagh intervened and told Bellingham it was not the time to make his defence, but merely to answer the charge. Bellingham replied to Castlereagh that he would do what His Lordship thought best. He would allow the country to judge his act at the trial.
When he was taken out of Court to the coach to send him to Newgate some of the passers-by applauded him amid shouts of ‘Burdett for ever’. It was feared the mob might try to release Bellingham until some Life Guards arrived.
Bellingham lived at 9 New Milman Street, Bedford Row with his wife Mary and three young sons. The house was visited and searched but the results are unavailable. Several people recalled seeing him about the Commons recently and in the coffee room. Others mentioned Perceval had alluded to the possibility of his assassination recently.
Bellingham was sent to Newgate. At his trial on 15th May he complained the papers he needed to establish his defence had been withheld. The AG prosecuting said the papers were available on the table should Bellingham need them. The Defendant requested an adjournment to call several witnesses from Russia. This was refused. He was allowed to address the jury and complained of ministerial injustice and cruelty. He was found guilty and sentenced to death.
Sat 19th Dec 1812
Bellingham was hanged on 18th May. Whilst awaiting execution he told Sheriff Heygate that he had been referred from minister to minister and office to office before his claims for services provided in Russia were finally rejected. He commended ministers to attend more closely to the grievances of their supplicants. ‘Had my case of Russian oppression been brought before parliament, none of this would have happened’.
Before the executioner put the cap over his head, Dr Ford asked him if he had any final words. He started to talk about Russia and his family. Ford stopped him and called him to pray. When the cap was again offered he asked to be exempted its use. Ford said that was impossible (the effect of hanging on facial expression might disturb the spectators).
It was raining and the crowd was small. They shouted ‘God bless you’ repeatedly. Ford continued praying for a while after Bellingham had been prepared. On the seventh stroke of 8 am the trap door opened. He only fell about 2 feet and remained visible to the crowd. The lower part of the gallows was enclosed to conceal the men who were pulling on his legs. He remained suspended until 9 am when he was cut down, loaded on a cart, and delivered to St Bartholomew’s Hospital for dissection.
Sat 10th Oct 1812
The French government has proclaimed that the Berlin and Milan Decrees are revoked as towards America. The evidence is in the letter of the Chief Justice of 2nd Nov 1810, the letter of the Finance Minister of the same day and the Decrees of 28th April 1811. Le Moniteur says there should be no doubt about it.
M/s Pinckney and Monroe have remarked the injustice of the British position and the people of America are convinced of it. As a consequence, France has no need to continue the Decrees against that country, says Le Moniteur.
The Decrees remain in full force against those countries that permit their flag to be ‘denationalised’ (flags of convenience). France wishes to obtain formal British recognition of the principle that enemy property in neutral bottoms is neutral property, and that neutral property under an enemy flag is enemy property (the state of international law after the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713).
France considers that American ships carrying British cargo and sailing under British convoy into the Baltic are effectively British ships, regardless of the flag, and that was why their cargoes were confiscated (this refers to the American part of the lost convoy of 700 ships)
Tues 6th Oct 1812 Extraordinary
Madison has reported to Congress that Britain has employed a secret agent known as Capt Henry to destabilise the Union. He was to separate the mercantile states of the North East from the agricultural slave states in the South. Britain would then send a minister to liaise with the former and establish an alliance.
He says whilst the British ambassador smiled at us with his face, his agent was fomenting the disintegration of our country. He attached copies of correspondence between both the Earl of Liverpool and Sir James Craig, late Governor-General of Canada, and Capt Henry. The correspondence is reproduced in the Frankfurt Journal.
In the next edition of Bombay Courier the correspondence is published. Henry’s instructions from Sir James Craig were to get the North East states wired. Madison told Congress he seemed to have been instructed over a year ago as he completed the job and asked for payment in June 1811.
Henry’s instructions warned him to avoid those federalists who were too ardent. He was to ‘investigate public opinion and assess support for the two main parties; evaluate the chance for war with England; check the extent of support in New England for separation from the Union and, in the event it exists, the likely extent of support by the merchants for an alliance with England.’
“Do not openly disclose you are our man but if you can befriend, and make sympathetic, one of the members of the prominent parties, you may tell him he can contact the British government via me (Craig). I attach a ‘letter of credit’ to establish your official status but use it only if you are really confident.
“Pay particular attention to Vermont (on the Canadian border). Write to me often and put your letters in an envelope addressed to …… or the Chief Justice of that town or Mr Ryland (Craig’s secretary), all of whom will forward them to me.”
Lord Liverpool has denied everything and blamed Craig for acting without instructions. This attempt to overthrow the American Constitution and Union will probably have consequences.
Sat 17th Oct 1812
Madison is convinced there is no prospect of having the British Order-in-Council repealed voluntarily by London. He has sent a secret message to Congress commending the repeal of the Non-Intercourse Act and its replacement with a temporary Embargo Act of 90 days that is to be drafted to permit the President to cancel it early, should it appear appropriate. This will be injurious to British trade. Clay supported the proposal whilst Randolph was passionately opposed. The vote is said to have been about 70/50 in favour.
America had expected, once the Regent assumed full monarchical powers, to see the Orders repealed, but it now appears the Regent is controlled by his minister and no change is likely.
Madison sees America’s future as better assured by friendship with France – this alliance will produce a temporary monopoly of continental imports and exports. America will have the carrying trade of Europe. It is a big gain for the US which can, in time, increasingly supply the sorts of manufactured goods that Britain has historically been supplying. The problem is that France will not wait and American ships will again be arrested and their cargoes confiscated if there is delay in America choosing between Britain and France. The intended Embargo Act is a final step short of war.
The losses from the late Baltic convoy are a case in point. At least two of the American-flag ships in Baltic were burnt by the authorities – that is supposed to only happen to British goods, which these ships were deemed to be because of the identity of their cargoes.
France had a poor harvest in 1811 and there have been grain shortages in the south from whence Paris provisions her armies in Spain. To relieve this shortage, the usual source is America, and Madison’s recommended Embargo Act will prevent that relief from being sent. However, it will also be a terrible blow to Wellington’s army in the peninsula which is equally reliant on America for grain and flour.
The proposed embargo is predictably unpopular in the North East. During the first week of April, when it was rumoured to be on the verge of promulgation, the shipowners of New York, Boston, Philadelphia and Baltimore were loading and clearing their ships at great speed. Between 3rd – 5th April over 100 sail cleared New York. The Embargo Act reportedly has a clause permitting ships to sail from American ports under a licence of the President but they will likely be issued restrictively if at all. The merchants are not taking that chance.
The National Intelligencer, which is a semi-official newspaper, has read the runes. It says the predictable policies of the present British ministry since the Regent received his powers, and its language in parliament, reveals England prefers confrontation to negotiation. This opinion is reinforced by the accelerated pressing of seamen in all British ports and the increased numbers of British warships deployed on the American coast (this last is expressly denied by the Bombay Courier Editor). It concludes that a temporary embargo is in the national interest.
Others are saying that diplomatic relations between Washington and London may be improved by a new American envoy who is said to be preparing to sail for England. We recall that in 1794, when London and Washington were in a similar confrontation, the Americans enacted an embargo as a preparatory step for war and sent Jay to London to negotiate. Perhaps they will do the same again. However the National Intelligencer of 2nd May says a Bill has been read that deplores British naval depredations on the American coasts and authorises the President to send US warships to seize any British warships and bring them into port.
Sat 24th Oct 1812
Lord Liverpool in the House of Lords has denied instructing Capt Henry as the Americans allege. He thought someone in Canada might have instructed Henry for the protection of that country. Henry’s job is the protection of Canada from America. It was nothing to do with the British ministry. Governor Craig sent him to America to get information for defensive purposes only. England has not tried to divide the Union or cultivate that part of it that is sympathetic to our aims.
In the Commons Castlereagh adopted the same position. He said the ministry had no intention of destroying the American Union. He had seen the letter signed by Herman W Ryland (Craig’s secretary) but knew nothing about it.
In Capt John Henry’s letter to Monroe of Feb 1812 he said European governments took the view that “in any measure tending to wound their pride or provoke their hostility, the American government could never induce a majority of its people to concur. So long as Europe holds that view, you will never resolve your differences with them. I have an escape to propose.”
America should place no reliance on Castlereagh, Liverpool, Wellesley or their faction. “I hope the measures I commend to you will induce my own people to withdraw their confidence from such officials (Henry’s Irish). They have embarrassed America, caused distress in Ireland and England and earned contempt from everyone. I am not asking you for patronage. I just resent the perfidy and dishonour of ministers who have violated the terms on which I was employed.”
Attached to this unique letter was Henry’s correspondence with Lord Liverpool and Liverpool’s secretary Robert Peel revealing the purpose of his mission to America.
Briefly, the letters suggest that after the USS Chesapeake incident, the Governor-General of Canada feared America would war with England. He proposed measures to the ministry for the English party in America to resist the Federal government with a view to separate the northern states from the Confederacy.
Henry was sent to Boston from whence Governor-General Craig’s plot was to be developed. He was to encourage the Federal party to resist central government, assure the Federalists of British support via Canada, open communications between leading Federalists and the Governor-General of Canada and convince them to abandon their own plans and adopt the English plan. Henry worked on this from Jan – June 1809 and helped to procure those legislative Acts of Massachusetts and Connecticut that checked Washington and prevented early American hostility to England.
The Americans are unhappy that England, a country with whom they are at peace, should promote treason by American citizens.
Henry did not ask London for a specific reward but relied on a letter of Craig’s dated 16th Jan 1809 which indicated his (Henry’s) information had been well received by the ministry and he had a claim on both the Governor-General of Canada and the ministry in London. In another letter of 13th Sept 1809 Craig promised Henry a job in Canada worth £1,000 a year. Henry told Liverpool he will accept a job in Lower Canada worth £500 a year or a consulate in USA in discharge of Craig’s obligation to him.
Peel wrote to Henry saying the British government had no request from Canada for compensation for Henry. He would normally forward the correspondence to Craig for action but the Governor-General has returned to England so Peel will ask his successor. Henry heard nothing more. In Sept 1811 he realised there was no likelihood of a new British consulate (which he hoped to operate) being allowed in USA by the then US administration and he elected to return to Quebec, reminding Peel to recommend him to the new Governor-General of Canada. Liverpool then asked Sir George Prevost to find a job for Henry.
The Americans have identified an accomplice of Henry’s in Washington and arrested him (Henry remains at large). He is Edward de Crillon of a noble Irish family but married to an émigré whose name he adopted and who has since died leaving him two daughters. Crillon has been debriefed.
He says he met Henry in London at Wellesley Pole’s house and again at Lord Yarmouth’s house. He was brought to America by Capt Tracy of the Boston ship New Galen. He wanted to come to New York because a relative named Daniel McCormick lived there and ran a prosperous business. As McCormick was unmarried, Crillon thought he might personally benefit from a closer friendship with him. Tracy awaited the New Galen at Ryde on Isle of Wight. Henry was waiting there too. Whilst waiting, Henry was visited by Powell, a Philadelphia merchant, Perkins, the famous Boston merchant, a British army officer named Wilkinson or Dickson, and Bagholt, an emissary of Governor-General Craig. Henry received some 200 letters to carry to America from the American firm of Higginson & Co of Finsbury Square which had just stopped payment. Henry did not choose to be involved in the delivery of so much bad news and gave them to Capt Tracy. Just before departure Henry received letters from Lord Liverpool to be delivered to Sir George Prevost.
During the voyage Crillon had ample opportunity to talk with Henry. He says Henry first obtained a job in America during Adams’ presidency as Captain of Artillery through the influence of the then British ambassador. He commanded the battery at Portland. He accumulated some capital and bought an estate in Vermont near the Canadian border. He stayed there and studied law. He detested Republican government and wrote critically and frequently to the newspapers about it. These dissenting articles caught the attention of the British government and Craig invited Henry to Quebec. After staying there some time, he went to Montreal where the plan was hatched.
He was then sent to Boston where he set-up house in the Exchange Coffee Shop. He reported on mercantile activity and promoted the British cause. Several British agents assisted him by pointing out the prominent people of Boston whom he then befriended and thus was able to mix with the leading people. Whilst there Henry received a letter from Craig offering the services of the fleet and troops at Halifax if required. After this service in Boston, he returned to London. He was clearly still valued as he was given a membership of the Pitt Club without having to ballot for it. He submitted his fee note of £32,000 to the ministry but was told he would be paid by Sir George Prevost once he returned to Canada and resumed his job. The only advantage he was able to obtain in London was the appointment of an Irish friend as AG of Canada.
Henry is a spy for reward, usually the best sort, but the failure of the British government to pay him deeply irritated him. As an Irishman he was already aware of despicable acts of oppression against his people by the British who, he thought, treated the Irish as an inferior species. His opinions did not make him a natural ally of the British. He said it was Craig who approached him rather than vice versa. Henry lived in George Town with an auctioneer named Davis. Crillon often visited him there but was unable to receive any instructions. Henry bought Crillon’s French estate in the Pyrenean foothills near the Spanish border, apparently as a refuge. The British suspected that Crillon might be a French agent and sent men to arrest him. They released his name as a suspect to several Americans intending to destroy his reputation in the expectation he would have to leave the country.
Crillon said he himself lived in Boston since 24th Dec 1811. He had two interviews with State Governor Gerry. He believed Henry had gone to New York.
The British ambassador to Washington read the correspondence in the public newspapers and wrote of his own volition to Secretary of State Madison – ‘I know nothing. The British government would never act in the way described. We are upright people; Henry is not. I am seeking advice. Please do nothing.’
Sat 31st Oct 1812
House of Lords, 5th May – Lord Holland says the Americans have made grievous charges against the honour and good faith of England. They say we have tried to sever the North East from the Union and ally ourselves with it; that we offered to send a minister to arrange the separation. Holland feared the publicity from America would damage Britain’s reputation in Europe. It might also diminish the support those Anglophile Americans offered us. He thought a Select Committee would be a good way to clarify our position in this matter as that would conceal the names of the players.
Lord Liverpool opposed the production of the letters. He had already declared that Henry was unknown to the ministry. He understood Henry was resident in Canada but had gone to America on business and had inter alia advised the Governor-General of Canada on the state of opinion in that country. Henry was solely concerned to protect Canada from the Americans.
The Embargo Act had stimulated discontent between America and England and offensive preparations had been made by the Americans. We needed to assure ourselves that Canada was safe, Liverpool said. The General in charge of the Boston garrison had been ordered to have 10,000 men on stand-by for immediate service. Boston is close to Canada. The Governor-General of Canada was so worried he stopped Sir George Prevost, the naval officer commanding at Halifax, from sending a squadron to Martinique. On 13th Dec Congress voted funds for thousands of volunteers. They had no enemy to attack.
These warlike preparations by the Americans seem to be anti-British. The volunteers must be intended for use against British Canada. It was feared they planned a pre-emptive strike on Canada.
Erskine had enquired of Madison the reason for these preparations and was told that the conduct of both France and England was sufficient casus bellum. Erskine warned Craig of his imminent danger. The matter was then debated in Congress and a decision to declare war was narrowly averted. There had been some skirmishes on the Great Lakes but they had been settled locally. The fact that America is divided in two camps is known internationally. One of Craig’s defensive preparations was to send Henry to America for better information. If war was likely to induce a schism in the Union it was important to know it, but as soon as it appeared that war would not be declared, Henry was recalled. He came to London and submitted a note of his fees. His demands were supported by many respectable men in London and Rylands, who was here on leave, was one of them. Craig then unfortunately died.
The important thing is the acts of the American executive. Why had they not queried London or our minister in Washington. Why should they have instantly published the papers (‘hear hear’ from the whole House). Its the ministry’s position that America was preparing for war and only lacked a pretext which Henry’s supposed activities fortuitously provided.
Grey said it is universally agreed that collecting information in a foreign state is a proper activity for diplomatists, but Craig’s instructions to Henry were to identify and cultivate American contacts who favoured splitting the Union, and he gave credentials to Henry to prove he was an authentic emissary.
Grey thought that sowing disaffection in a foreign country may have become routine in Europe but it was clearly illegal under international law. Information of the military preparations in America permitted Craig to prepare his defences – assemble troops, repair fortifications, establish depots and amass provisions – but Henry should not have been instructed to seduce Americans from their national allegiance.
Two months after Henry’s mission commenced, Erskine completed an amicable settlement with the Americans on 20th April 1809. No wonder they are irritated, said Grey. On the one hand we publicly negotiate an agreement with them whilst on the other we appear to have concurrently and covertly endeavoured to destroy their Union. Had we succeeded there would doubtless have been civil war, then how would we have protected our partisans from the patriotic Americans. Obviously, the true policy of Britain was revealed in the Treaty not in Henry’s acts. It may be argued that the ministry recognised the illegality but merely told the Governor-General to be cautious and avoid a quarrel. It appears that the ministry, inured to illegality in Europe, condoned an illegal act in USA, Grey said.
Lord Liverpool has complained that the Americans, by publishing the papers, showed they were not conciliatory - this will not do. The only honourable path for Britain is to make an absolute denial of ministerial involvement and condemn Henry in parliament. Craig was over zealous but he recalled Henry from USA when Erskine’s treaty was signed - his conduct may be reprobated but it was not a serious offence. We should focus the blame on Henry.
Darnley mentioned Henry’s letter of June 1809 to Craig in which he says his conduct had received the approbation of HM ministers. This would have to be explained if we are to fully satisfy the Americans, he thought.
Holland disliked the way ministers’ instant reaction had been to transfer the blame to the dead Governor-General. We need a clear statement from the Throne. We should also reconsider the remuneration given to Henry. He has since been appointed a Judge for his services. England needs to make a consistent refutation of her complicity in the whole business.
Sat 31st Oct 1812
The news from America is disturbing:
The Boston merchants have petitioned Washington that they have considerable property in London and British West Indies and need time to repatriate it before relations deteriorate further.
Governor Hull of Ontario is moving to attack Oswego and Detroit in lower Canada.
Tennessee has proclaimed to its people – ‘the hour of vengeance is at hand. The eternal enemy is to be taught to respect our rights. Volunteers for military service are required. War is about to start - don’t miss it.’
Congress has passed a law authorising American warships to seize any foreign ships containing American sailors. It is possible that all Britons in America will be arrested and their property distrained. The Americans say under the treaty we made with them in 1794 we had agreed to be friendly. Now Britain is seizing American sailors from American ships and detaining them on British warships as crew.A new law is proposed in Congress. Anyone pressing an American-born seaman to serve in a foreign ship is deemed a pirate and will be liable to execution. American seamen may themselves use lethal force to prevent anyone pressing them into foreign service. Reprisals will be taken against any country that presses American nationals. American seamen will receive $30 during their detention which will be paid out of the property of the detaining country in America.The President is authorised to seize as many seamen from British warships as are estimated to have been taken from America and offer them for cartel exchange. Every foreign warship that presses American sailors will be denied provisions and pilot services in American ports. If the foreign ship is a merchantman it will not be allowed to land its cargo.
Sat 31st Oct 1812
New York 6th May - The British have allied themselves with the Indian tribes and are assembling their forces on the north bank of the Niagara River.
Sat 10th Oct 1812
The Livery of London is smarting under its sudden inability to petition the King. It is an ancient right which they do not want to lose. They have issued a Proclamation. They deplore the corruption and unconstitutional acts of the ministry. They are ashamed that the resources of the country are increasingly diverted to the minister’s friends in undeserved pensions and sinecures. They abhor the substitution of paper money for gold and its inflationary effects. They say the whole country knows that Perceval and Castlereagh traffick in seats in House of Commons and reinstated the Duke of York as CiC when the people wanted him gone. They want both ministers prosecuted. They deplore the years of commercial restrictions that have bankrupted so many merchants and impoverished the nation. They resent French émigré and German officers commanding British troops.
They had expected the Prince Regent, whose public views were those of the country, to remedy these many problems but he remains without the Crown and has been persuaded to maintain the oligarchs in power, the very people who have corrupted parliament to their personal advantage. And they implore the Regent to dismiss his perfidious ministers.
Sat 17th Oct 1812
Unconfirmed reports from Mauritius say Napoleon left Paris for the North. Talleyrand is left in charge with Regency powers.
Sat 17th Oct 1812
The Frankfurt Journals to 7th July have arrived via Basra and contain English news to 20th June. Perceval’s death caused the rest of his group to try to re-allocate jobs. They were prepared to bring in Lord Wellesley and Canning, but essentially wished to maintain their own ascendancy and policies in cabinet. Lord Liverpool conducted the negotiations in mid-May, which were exclusively about the Catholics, but they failed. Wellesley was strongly of opinion that Perceval’s policies were against the national interest and inimical to the happiness of the people. Then the rump of Perceval’s group decided to soldier-on but too many MPs were opposed.
Stewart Wortley in the House of Commons moved an Address to the Regent to form a new ministry. He wants to ensure an election. That might bring-in a popular administration rather than the trumped-up deal amongst the old gang of oligarchs that Castlereagh et al intend. Castlereagh led the opposition to Wortley but was unable to convince the House. Wortley’s proposed Address was carried 174/170. Castlereagh and Yorke complained to the Speaker that some of their supporters had been busy and had been deprived of a vote. Then a desperate search of the building was held to round-up ‘yes-men’ and Castlereagh strong-armed the Speaker to have a new count on the basis the previous result did not reflect the opinion of all the members. The Speaker then permitted a second vote which the ministry won 176/174.
Wortley was incensed. Whitbread said the ministry could not save itself from the negligence of its supporters. He called for a legal expert to advise the House on its Constitutional position. He thought the decision had been reversed by trickery but he could not convince the House.
The Regent asked Lord Wellesley to form a government and he replied, if he was the minister, he would certainly emancipate the Catholics. This important subject is finally due for debate at end June and all the Lords have been summoned to attend. Wellesley was unable to entice Grey, Grenville or any of that liberal faction to join him. Neither could he co-operate with the late ministry as its toppling had not been consensual.
On this failure, the Regent sent for Moira but he declined the prime ministry and offered only to mediate between Wellesley and Liverpool. This was unsuccessful. On 2nd June the Regent offered the job to Wellesley again. The Grenville faction were only agreeable to coming into power with a majority in the cabinet whereas Wellesley was only offering four places out of twelve or five out of thirteen. Wellesley had to turn down the Regent a second time and Moira was back in the hot seat.
Moira supposes, with his and Erskine’s votes likely to go with Grenville, the liberals could have a majority in a thirteen member cabinet. That was where the situation stood at early June. Bellingham’s death may not have been in vain.
Sat 24th Oct 1812
Lloyds of London has posted a letter from New York in its coffee house indicating British trade to West Indies will be threatened by the proposed American Embargo Act. British consuls in America have been advised that they might have to leave soon.
Sat 24th Oct 1812
Napoleon is in the East and has announced the second war of Poland. He says at Tilsit the Tsar swore eternal alliance with France and eternal war with England but has now changed his mind.
Russia says the Tilsit deal was Russia runs the East and France runs the West. French armies are supposed to remain in western Europe leaving the east to Russian discretion.
The Tsar has given no public explanation for his volte face.
Napoleon considers his choices are war or dishonour. He hopes that war in Poland will procure a better guarantee of Russian support to him. Hogendorp has mobilised the Prussian army to assist France.
Sat 24th Oct 1812
French attempts to negotiate peace with us continue unabated. The point of contact is still at Morlaix but it remains mainly for prisoner exchanges. The ministry says it tried to return a reply to the latest French initiative to Calais but our frigate was fired on and we had to revert to Morlaix for delivery. The French later apologised for firing.
Sat 31st Oct 1812
The House of Commons has voted a present of £50,000 to Perceval’s widow and an annuity of £2,000 a year. The eldest son with get £1,000 annuity until his Mum dies, then assumes her £2,000 annuity.
Sat 31st Oct 1812
Vienna, 14th March – Austria and France have agreed a defensive alliance. Austria will provide 24,000 infantry 6,000 cavalry and 60 cannon to a combined force (its already in the Duchy of Warsaw liaising with the King of Westphalia’s army). Both countries guarantee the integrity of the Turkish empire i.e. this treaty is directed against Tsar Alexander who has seized Ottoman lands and extended his frontier to Sereth and in Asia. The Porte is expected to accede to the treaty.
Sat 7th Nov 1812
London, 20th April – the Court of Common Council (the representative body of London business) has obtained a complete triumph over the ministry. The officials pressed every button they had in the City and called-in every favour but they failed to prevent Londoners from expressing their grievances to the Regent.
The ministry sent minders to influence the Bank, the India Company, the joint-stock firms, the public boards, the merchant bankers and many contractors and commissioners dependent on these premier commercial bodies but the merchants had also canvassed the whole City and ministerial attempts to reduce the turnout largely failed.
A magnificent attendance was obtained at the Common Council’s meeting and a large number of Londoners signed the City’s Address to the Regent asking him to dismiss the ministry, which has become popularly known as ‘the domestic administration’ as it contains mainly relatives of the Minister.
Sat 7th Nov 1812
Staff of the Russian Legation in Paris have been caught buying information from the French Department of War. Four clerks were implicated in the sale of army details and one has been sentenced to death. Another (Saget) is fined and has to wear the iron collar for an hour in public.
Sat 7th Nov 1812
The channel of communication via Morlaix (the prisoner exchange) has been used to submit a humanitarian French proposal to London. Prussia has a good harvest of winter wheat and a surplus is available for export. Both France and England have hungry populaces. Napoleon has suggested to the British ministry that we jointly buy this supply for the relief of our people.
The initial response of our government was that our shortages in this country are not yet severe. Britain is not actually short of grain, its just that merchants in the manufacturing and export sectors have less business due to the Continental System and have laid-off staff. This has disabled the unemployed from paying for food.
We have said we are willing to consider an arrangement whereby, after the Prussian ships discharge the British half of each cargo, they load the empty space with British manufactures for sale in France. A French response is awaited.
Sat 7th Nov 1812
The House was then cleared of strangers to allow debate on the Orders-in-Council. News reporters were removed. The merchants Benjamin Owen, Thomas Ostler and Joshua Schofield were then examined.
Sat 14th Nov 1812
London, 20th June – The new cabinet:
The Earl of Liverpool, formerly Lord Hawkesbury, is First Lord of the Treasury;
Pitt’s pupil, Vansittart is Chancellor of the Exchequer – he will benefit from that unanswerable line ‘it accords with the system of Mr Pitt’.
The Geordie John Scott, known as Lord Eldon, is again Lord Chancellor. He is the man who has made signal indecisiveness a route to power. Older parliamentarians still fondly recall his 9-hour speech as AG in the prosecution of Horne Tooke which was fundamental to that man’s acquittal; his talent for ambiguity is unique.
Castlereagh is Foreign Minister. On the eve of war with America, the public might think they are being trifled with. We hope Castlereagh will recall that, in relations with America, we must convince a greater number of people than with European countries. He has the vivacity of an Irishman but we hope he will control his pride and temper and remember he now represents one of Europe’s leading powers.
Lord Yarmouth has Home Affairs - he is a justly modest man.
Lord Melville has the Admiralty where his speculative genius is well recalled.
Of the others, there is little to be said.
Sat 14th Nov 1812
Count Pagnani, the Russian Chancellor to the King of Italy, has commented perceptively in April 1812 on the rumours of war between Russia and France:
Russia has placed an army along the line from Kiev to the Baltic and firearms have been distributed in the frontier provinces. These acts appear to be preparations for war. Russia has been dismayed by the resurrection of Polish nationalism under the government of a French General.
On the other hand, the Rouble exchange rate is worsening, the government has little money, the army is small, under-financed and weakly officered, and Russia has no allies to concert operations with. The recent wars with the Turks and Persians have produced little advantage and another war over Finland may be confidently predicted. These points militate against war with France.
The Russian people dread war but their opinion is irrelevant. More important is Romanzow, the Tsar’s minister, who is also committed to peace. His main concern is to maintain domestic tranquillity.
The war party have told the Tsar that France cannot carry war into the Russian interior, the country is too big to occupy. There is nothing to fear, they say, if we act defensively. If we are forced to retreat, we will devastate the country behind us (as we have seen Wellington do so effectively in India and Iberia) leaving the French with nothing to eat. Our Cossacks and Tartars are masters of destruction. The campaigning season is short and before the French get anywhere they will have to retreat.
It is true that provisioning a large army is difficult at the best of times and very difficult in a desolated country, but it is possible. The French recently wintered on the banks of Vistula and suffered not at all. Nevertheless, the lack of provisions seems a thin reed on which to found a national policy that could result in losing everything. The Russian army has always lived off the surrounding countryside and that may be why their Generals value this strategy so highly – actually they have never had a well-organised commissariat.
Sat 14th Nov 1812
London, 30th April – Our Board of Trade applied to the Russian Company for a Licence to send a ship to Matwick and was refused. We hope this does not indicate our trade difficulties in the Baltic are increasing.
Sat 14th Nov 1812
According to London newspapers of 1st May, an American arrived at Isle of Wight from France in HMS Hornet and said Capt Henry had left America in the New Galen for France. After arrival, he was issued a Residency Permit by police in Paris and left that city the same day. We suppose he will retire to the Estate he bought from Crillon in the Pyrenees.
Sat 14th Nov 1812
Crocker, the Bow Street officer, was patrolling in Hampstead on 30th April when he saw two men ‘acting suspiciously’. They were standing on a wall, and as he watched, one of them appeared to fall off. He hurried to the scene and found the taller man was suspended by his neck from a lamp-post. The shorter man was trying to leave.
Crocker caught him back and brought both of them to Bow Street for enquiries.
It transpired they are canal workers. They had been together the previous afternoon tossing coins for money. When one had accumulated all the money they continued gambling for their clothes and finally for their lives. The short chap won this last bet and the tall one submitted to be hanged from a lamp-post.
Crocker took them before the magistrate who is examining the statutes to discover what offence he can charge them with. Meanwhile they have been committed to Bridewell.
Sat 21st Nov 1812
The House of Commons debate on the Orders-in-Council continued on 4th May:
Jeremiah Ryder has been interviewed. He is a Birmingham trader with buyers in America. His capital of £50,000 is all held in stock which he cannot ship until the Orders are repealed. He does not care about the French Decrees or the Non-Importation and Embargo Acts. Ryder is daily importuned by manufacturers offering their products at knock-down prices. He is irritated he cannot take advantage of their offers. If there is a war with America he thinks he will take his business to New York and exploit that market directly. He believes the Non-Importation Act has stimulated American domestic manufacture.
Joseph Webster makes wire in Birmingham. He has some valuable orders from America which he cannot ship until the Orders are repealed. The diminishment of his trade has caused him to lay-off workers. He usually employs 100 but has dismissed 25 whom he believes to be still unemployed.
Joseph Day is a locksmith from Walsall. He said much the same. The Poor Rates in Walsall have increased by £600 in the last few months. A high level of unemployment affected the town but no violence had yet occurred.
Sat 28th Nov 1812
The Franco-Prussian alliance of 24th Feb 1812 contains two interesting clauses:
By Clause 2 the parties mutually guarantee the integrity of each other’s lands.
By Clause 4 if England makes a commercial attack by blockade or otherwise that is repugnant to international law (i.e. contrary to the Treaty of Utrecht, 1713), the parties agree to close their ports to all those neutrals that permit their flags to be used by the nationals of other countries.
Sat 12th Dec 1812
Napoleon has made a more formal repeal of the Berlin and Milan Decrees in respect of America on 23rd April 1812:
‘Napoleon, Emperor of the French, King of Italy, Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine, Mediator of the Swiss Confederation, etc., proclaims that France considers the American Non-Intercourse Act to be an Act of resistance against the British Orders-in-Council and a refusal to comply with a system that is derogatory of the rights of neutral states. Accordingly, the Berlin and Milan Decrees are withdrawn in respect of American ships wef 1st November 1811.’
Sat 2nd Jan 1813
A new Order-in-Council dated 21st April 1812 has been issued. It revokes the Orders of 7th Jan 1807 and 26th April 1809. It is operative only if the Berlin and Milan Decrees are also revoked by ‘some authentic act of the French government’. The benefit of the revocation will be available to any ship and cargo that was arrested after the date of the formal French repeal.
The Order acknowledges that on 20th May 1812 the American minister to London gave Castlereagh a copy of what he claimed to be a French Act dated 23rd April 1812 notifying the repeal of the French Decrees in respect of American ships. (both these events are dated after the Order.) The Court of St James had not previously received a copy of this Act19 and considers it does not satisfy the conditions necessary for repeal of the Orders but it wishes to re-establish trade between neutral and belligerent powers and will accept it as authoritative.
However American ports and trade are open to French merchant and war ships but closed to all British ships. Britain expects the American government to revoke its discriminatory legislation as soon as possible. If not done by 1st Aug, the Orders will be restored.
Sat 12th Dec 1812
Marquis Wellesley protested against Perceval and his group and resigned on 19th Feb 1812. He says he has been accommodating in cabinet, even when he thought he was right and Perceval wrong, but it did not produce a more consensual attitude in Perceval. He is confident that the policy of restricted warfare in the peninsula and an inflexible attitude to Catholics are both wrong. He says we should send all our troops to his brothers in Iberia and seriously try to eject the French; we should give the Catholics something to hope for. Perceval wont do either thing so Wellesley is resigning.
His brothers are doing their best and he cannot support them properly. He notified the Regent and Perceval of his decision and Perceval unilaterally sought to instantly oust him in a furtive way by pressing the Regent to replace him with Moira, Castlereagh, Sidmouth or any other of his group. By this act Perceval had forfeited Wellesley’s respect. He says he might act ‘with’ Perceval in future but never again ‘under’ Perceval. He might agree to serve under Moira or Holland.
Sat 2nd Jan 1813
America declared war on England on 18th June 1812. When London learned of it on 1st Aug, the American shipping in British ports was arrested and instructions went off to all naval squadrons to capture any shipping met on the high seas that is flying the American flag or is owned by Americans. The Order exempts American shipping carrying English goods under English Licences.20
H M frigate bearing the news of the revocation of some of the Orders-in-Council is expected to arrive in an American port on about 20th July – until then the U S Government will be unaware of the changed situation. There is no report of American privateers being licensed yet. HMS Belvedere had a narrow escape from an American squadron - three frigates USS President, Congress and Essex, and the sloop United States - and managed to return to Halifax with only limited damage and injuries.
Sat 2nd Jan 1813
Bernadotte has come over to us. He dines on Admiral Saumarez’s flagship and co-operates with our navy. Sweden has declared war on France and is assembling a force in Pomerania to attack the rear of the French army in Poland.
Sat 16th Jan 1813
The Sicilian parliament is to convene on 15th June to consider the terms of a Constitution that Bentinck has drafted for the island. This has caused great happiness amongst the Sicilians who have formerly been serfs of the King of Naples. In May a military expedition was forming at Palermo but its purpose is unknown. About 800 deserters from the German brigade of the French army in Spain have arrived at Palermo to join the Italian Legion, as the Sicilian force is being called.
Sat 16th Jan 1813
Political Register 11th April:
Sir Samuel Romilly has visited Bristol which city he hopes to represent in the Commons. The London Morning Chronicle has reported the event in a thoroughly dishonest way. A reader would suppose that Romilly was welcomed and cheered and a large number of people listened to his speech and attended his dinner.
In fact Romilly was unable to address the people because they shouted him down. There was a group of his supporters present with cards printed ‘Romilly’ in their hats but the Bristol weavers removed the cards and tore them up and the candidate’s supporters were too few to respond.
Romilly’s dinner more or less commenced with a toast for Tierney, who is now seen as an inveterate placeman - he so abandoned his principles in the last parliament as to be rejected by his constituents in Southwark. It set the tone for the dinner.
It was the other candidate, ‘Orator’ Hunt, who received all the plaudits of the people. He spoke for 90 minutes elucidating the many ways that the major Whig faction has been helping itself to public money. The most important events at Bristol are entirely absent from the Morning Chronicle’s account.
Sat 30th Jan 1813
Le Moniteur, 3rd July – the French Emperor has presented the senate with treaties of alliance with Prussia and Austria.
Formerly the Russian Tsar was co-operating to reassert the principles of international law and save Europe from the English. In the conference on the River Niemen the Tsar agreed to be France’s second in the dispute and we made an offensive alliance with him. France agreed to forego the advantages she had won in war in order to conciliate and ally with Russia.
In 1806 when Austria renewed the war on France, Russia failed to respond to her treaty obligation. The 150,000 men contractually required of her dwindled to 15,000 and by the time they left Russia the Austrians had already been defeated.
However, it was not until 1811 that some acts of the Russian government confirmed their policy had changed:
Earlier in 1811 the Tsar had amassed a force on the Polish frontier to threaten the Duchy of Warsaw.
He also took a hostile position to France over the indemnities claimed for the Duke of Oldenburg in Hanover (The Dukedom is one of the titles of Christian Fredrik, the Prince Royal of Denmark currently ruling Norway. He is married to the Tsar’s sister).
On 19th Dec 1811 the Tsar issued a Ukase ending French trade with Russia and substituting English trade.
All three acts were incompatible with the terms of the FrancoRussian alliance. France spent the whole of 1811 in negotiations with Russia but it takes two to tango. In the face of implacable Russian hostility, France has now allied herself with Austria and Prussia preparatory to a confrontation with the Tsar.
Sat 6th Feb 1813
Castlereagh has advised the Lord Mayor of London on 31st July for the information of the City that a peace treaty was concluded between Sweden and Russia on 18th July. Our emissary to Stockholm (the banker Thornton) has just brought a copy to London. The British ministry has acceded to the treaty as well.
Sat 6th Feb 1813
Boston, 23rd June – the Massachusetts Legislature has passed some inflammatory Acts about war with England. The Federal Government will be displeased.21
Sat 16th Jan 1813
The Russian plan for the campaign against Napoleon has been changed due to the treason of the liberal Michael Speransky.22 All the magazines containing the army’s stores have been moved further into the interior of the country. It will be inconvenient but safer. The Russian plan still appears to be defensive.
Napoleon appears to have a disciplinary problem among his forces. They come from Austria, Prussia, the Rhine Confederacy, Italy and Holland as well as France. The Dutch regiment (formerly known as the Prince of Orange’s Regiment) mutinied on arriving on Prussian soil and disarmed its officers.
The Governor of Danzig has allowed the import of colonial (British) goods provided half of each ship’s cargo is in rice, lead and tobacco. These three items are almost unobtainable. The French have made progress in producing simulations (sugar from grapes and beets, coffee from chicory, domestic tobacco farming) but they have made little progress in growing or simulating indigo or cotton and still need to import these. British cargoes are also being welcomed at Kronstadt and Riga. Russian exports for return cargoes are more expensive than hitherto. Two ships direct from Britain have been allowed to discharge at Gothenburg.
Sat 6th Feb 1813
Napoleon is disenchanted with Bernadotte. He has offered to restore Pomerania and Finland to Sweden and Bernadotte’s Estates in France and Italy to that General, if he will only co-operate in the assault on Russia.
Bernadotte said Finland is not Napoleon’s to bestow and he might recover Pomerania himself militarily. He says he abandoned his French Estates when he became a Swede. Napoleon appealed to Bernadotte’s sense of gratitude but the ex-General said they had fought side by side and both shown valour and there was no debt of gratitude for Napoleon to call upon.
Bernadotte has done a deal with London. For a subsidy of £100,000 he will raise a force of 30,000 men to cruise the south Baltic coast in British ships, occasionally landing to cut communications, disrupt supplies, etc., in the French rear.
Sat 20th Feb 1813
London, 11th Sept – The banker and sometime Consul Thornton has returned via Copenhagen. He was unable to coax the Danes into befriending us. Not only did they refuse to talk with him but they ordered an increased mobilisation of troops. As a result we will not be able to include Denmark in the 6th coalition we have assembled against Napoleon.
Sat 6th Feb 1813
London market - 3% consols 7th July are declining at 55½
Sat 6th Feb 1813
Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York and Delaware are opposed to war with England. Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey and Vermont are split The big states of Pennsylvania and Virginia and the agricultural states are in favour. This war must damage the trade of New England and it seems the merchants will blame the south.
Sat 13th Feb 1813
The French Generals Moreau and Blucher have arrived in Stockholm and been welcomed by Bernadotte. They are to be employed in the Swedish or Russian army. Moreau enjoys broad support and popularity amongst the French people.
Sat 13th Feb 1813
President Madison on 1st June 1812 published a statement about the Orders-in-Council as a preamble to the American Declaration of War against England. It asserts the injustice of the Orders; the fact that they are not retaliatory on France but on neutrals, and he mentions some other oppressions he deems illegal.
Sat 13th March 1813
Sir Robert Wilson, who is attached to Russian army headquarters, reported on 24th Sept that the Tsar can count on 100,000 troops in the defence of Moscow.
He says the system of warfare Wellington operates in Spain has been introduced into this campaign as well - the majority of 1,100 French prisoners-of-war taken in the opening battle were killed. All the prisoners taken previously were also killed. A Hanoverian Colonel with two officers and 200 men has just been brought in – they are the non-French remains of a body of 600 troops taken prisoner on the Mojaisk Road. Wilson says their survival is doubtful. The Russians explain that their soldiers are resentful at their repeated defeats.
Mon 15th Feb 1813 Extraordinary
The Russians have sustained a severe defeat at Moskwa (Borodino). They lost 40 Generals and 50,000 men – that is five men for every one man lost to the French pan-European army. The Italian and Westphalian units fought well.
Sat 13th March 1813
Napoleon has complained of barbarity under flags of truce (his messengers are being executed). He has assured Marshall Walkovski that it was not the French who torched Moscow. The French want an armistice for the winter and it has been refused. Col Marchaud has returned from consulting the Tsar in St Petersburg where he was told “I will sooner grow my beard to my waist and live on herbs in Siberia than negotiate with France whilst her soldiers are within my empire.” The Tsar says this is not the usual sort of war.
Lord Tyconnell is with the Russians at Kiev. Cossack cavalry is pouring through that town for the front. These horsemen of the Steppe have a way in war that is reminiscent of the Mongols. Some Russians mention the last sack of Moscow, which was done by the Mongols, and its aftermath on the banks of the Volga where the retreating Scythian barbarians were killed without exception. Perhaps that was the historical event that provided the precedent for present Russian strategy.
Astonishingly, the Russian army has reserves of bread and brandy whilst the French are tightly rationed.
The French conscripts are disheartened. Many of them became tearful in recognition of their difficulties. This is not the war they expected. The rules of war have been abandoned.
Sat 20th Feb 1813
The ministry reports that Foster, our man in Washington, left New York on 18th July, Halifax on 22nd July and arrived Portsmouth 20th August on HMS Atalanta.
At the time he left Halifax, HMS Gleaner, which carried news of the repeal of the Orders–in-Council, had not arrived.
Lloyd’s have issued a bulletin saying Foster left Halifax on 30th or 31st July.
Sat 27th Feb 1813
London, 19th Sept - Canada has inadequate funds to raise an army but has nevertheless conscripted the entire male population aged between puberty and 60 years. The Bank of England has printed £80,000 in £1 paper money notes to meet Canadian government expenses (the Bank operates the largest printing business in the world). The notes have been shipped to Quebec.
Sat 27th Feb 1813
Encouraged by the approach of so many European troops, the Diet of Warsaw has named Prince Csartorynski as President of Council. He is 80 years old and has been Marshall of the Diet for 50 years.
His first act was to declare the re-establishment of the Confederation of Poland. Napoleon has welcomed the development and merely reminded the Poles that he has guaranteed the integrity of Austria.
Sat 6th March 1813
On 21st Sept a huge fleet of 600 transport ships left Yarmouth for the Baltic. It is rumoured they will carry 20,000 Swedish troops from Sweden to Finland to join with the 30,000 Russian troops in that country and act against the rear of Napoleon’s European army.
Sat 6th March 1813
The American General Hull has made a Proclamation to the people of Canada on 12th July 1812:
America has been continually injured, insulted and attacked by the British and can endure it no more. We must either resist or submit to more of the same. My army has entered Canada to attack the British troops. I have no quarrel with you. This continent is far from England.
I offer Canada civil, political and religious liberty. These are the foundations of individual and public prosperity. I promise to protect you. Now is your chance to throw-off slavery and declare your independence. If you become mixed-up with the British soldiers you risk being hurt. Maintain the normal tenor of your lives and stay away from any fighting. If the British act as usual this will necessarily be a war of extermination. You should volunteer to join with us.
Sat 6th March 1813
The Russians have adopted a unique strategy to oppose Napoleon. They chanced battle and felt the sting of French courage; since then they have been retreating. Its unusual for an army to destroy its own country but Russia is thoroughly feudal and can do a thing like that. The route from Smolensk to Moscow is a desert and Smolensk itself was largely burnt. The garrison commander sought to remove the houses in the suburbs to deprive the Prussian attackers of cover, but lost control of the fires he set.
Napoleon arrived in Moscow to find few people remaining. There were 120 cannon and 60,000 muskets in the arsenal but most of the population (normally 200,000) had left. The remaining occupants are primarily 30,000 of the Tsar’s injured soldiers left behind in the hospitals and 3,000 prisoners released from the gaols and armed by the Governor of Moscow before his departure. This latter group of desperate men have fired parts of the city and occupied the Kremlin. It required units of the Italian army to remove them before Napoleon could take-up quarters there.
Sat 6th March 1813
HMS Bloodhound (16) has arrived at Annapolis with proposals for Foster and Baker to make to the American government. They are supposed to relate to Henry’s abortive attempt to destroy the Union. Foster has gone to Halifax and only Baker is watching the British shop in Washington.
While the ship was in port and Captain Gold was off delivering his letters, local officials occupied the warship and removed its cannon ashore ‘for safety’. They say it should not have entered port against the law and is now prize. In a few days 31 crew deserted HMS Bloodhound and it is feared there will be insufficient people to man the ship should it be allowed to depart. To reduce the incidence of desertion she has been permitted to anchor out in the bay.
The people of Annapolis are wondering whether the voluntary desertion of so many crew might foretell the likely consequences of any other British warship coming into an American port. They propose to reward the Bloodhound deserters to encourage the others.
Sat 6th March 1813
The West Indian merchant fleet has just arrived in the Channel. It was escorted by a single frigate. Underwriters are relieved as the American Commodore Rodgers was thought to be intent on intercepting it. He has 3 frigates and 2 sloops cruising our side of the Atlantic.
The loss of an East or West Indian convoy would be terribly damaging to England now the money is running out. The loss of the Baltic convoy was bad enough - we likely could not survive another one.
The British fleet at Halifax has burned 20+ American merchant ships and captured a war-sloop.
Sat 6th March 1813
The London Docks have become very quiet. The Admiralty is conducting a extensive impressment and everyone is hiding. It is the same at the outports.
All the usual indulgences for merchant navy officers and others involved in work of national importance are waived and any male wandering the streets of an English port does so at his peril.
Five hundred prisoners from the prison ships at Portsmouth have volunteered for naval service and all except French and Italians are accepted.
Sat 13th March 1813
The USS Constitution has captured and sunk HMS Guerriere. The British ship was so damaged it had to be blown-up. Her crew were transferred to the American frigate as prisoners-of-war. USS Essex has captured HMS Alert. The circumstances are unclear but HMS Alert appeared in Halifax harbour with an American crew and under a flag of truce bringing a large number of British prisoners for exchange. Our American prisoners will be sent off tomorrow. The American way in naval war is to fill the tops with riflemen who pick off our officers on deck and disrupt our chain of command.
The British have captured Detroit (with General Hull and his entire army inside). They cannonaded the place until the defenders surrendered. There were no British casualties reported.
St John’s Newfoundland reports the trade and fisheries of British Canada have been disrupted by American privateers.
Sat 13th March 1813
Palermo, 24th July – the feudal system in Sicily is ended. Bentinck’s liberal Constitution is adopted. The King is completely devalued and power is shared by two Houses of Parliament. All the great landowners have voluntarily surrendered their historical rights over the land and people in return for seats in the upper House together with the clergy. A new Constitution is said by Bentinck to be modelled on British arrangements. The Queen of Naples is livid.
Sicilian Judges are made independent and appointed for life. Bentinck is appointed Lord Chancellor.
The King calls annual parliaments. The right of investiture (the royal monopolies) is cancelled. All revenue law must originate in the lower House and be approved by the Upper House. Trial by jury was approved by the lower House but negatived in the upper. Nevertheless, the new political arrangements are a great leap forward for the Sicilian people.
Sat 27th March 1813
The British and American settlers of Vermont and New Hampshire have met in early July and agreed to respect each other’s property during the war.
Sat 27th March 1813
The Bourbon Duke and Duchess d’Antraigues have been murdered at their home in Surrey by their new Italian butler Lorenzio. The Duke is one of the few Bourbons remaining in England. Lorenzio shot himself in the head afterwards. He has worked there only three months.
Sat 10th April 1813
Political commentators in London have been considering the difficulty of forming an administration. No one faction has a majority but none is willing to compromise its policies in a coalition. Lords Grey and Grenville are staying out unless they can bring in Catholic emancipation and repeal the Orders-in-Council. It is rare for any British politician to voluntarily refuse office but these two have done so repeatedly. In their absence, the country continues to be governed by the rump of Perceval’s group. They have no national popularity and limited parliamentary support.
The Regent has had Wellesley and Moira running around trying to create ministerial alliances but to no effect. Failing in that, he has allowed the former ministers to remain although the House has already voted its lack of confidence in them.
Wortley notes British exports in 1812 are running at about £10 millions less than 1811. The revenue over the same period has declined by £3 millions whilst expenditure has increased by £5 millions. All silver and gold coins have disappeared from circulation and only paper remains. With expenditure exceeding income, and the balance being met by paper money, the nation faces inflation and bankruptcy.
Lord Milton, the popular liberal MP for Yorkshire, says we should not continue a ministry in office after it has been voted incompetent in the House. Vansittart, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, is an advocate of paper currency. How can we have these people (like Vansittart) governing the country when 8 years ago they were deemed unfit to serve and Pitt and Fox laid aside their difference to form a government on national unity to keep them out of power. They have twice been forced out of office and now the time for their third expulsion has arrived.
Vansittart defended the ministry. He said the House of Commons had previously interfered with George III’s right to appoint a minister. When we resolved that the Commons may advise the King as to who to appoint, George dissolved parliament and called elections. It was then stated that the King has a clear Constitutional right to appoint whomsoever he likes as minister. If it were not so, this country would be a turbulent democracy instead of a limited monarchy.
Sir T Turton lamented the ministry’s attempt to appoint officials to the Regent’s household. If the Regent is surrounded by ministerial sycophants spewing their biased advices, he would become a useless charge on the nation. He thought, as the House had voted in 1803 to expel these people who comprise the present ministry, they should vacate their offices and stand aside.
A review of the Royal Household since the Revolution revealed that senior officials – Lords Chancellor, Lords Chamberlain, Lords Steward of the Council, Masters of the Horse - seldom changed with the ministry. There appeared little precedent for a ministry interfering in the Household. The attempt appeared intended to establish a second cabinet around the Regent that was not amenable to parliamentary oversight. The British way is for the two Houses to debate and approve the minister’s proposals whilst the King retains the power to select the minister from amongst the representatives, which power arises only after the people have chosen their representatives by election.
Sat 10th April 1813
Sir William Windham has died. He was an eccentric man and his character needs elucidation to comprehend. His intimate friend Amyot has undertaken to edit his public speeches for publication. He has collected all that remains in three volumes and prefaced the speeches with a biographical vignette from which this obituary is drawn:
In 1778 Windham was a major in the militia. His battalion was ordered to march from Norwich to an adjoining county. It was customary at the time to pay each man a guinea when ordered to serve outside his own county. Windham ordered the men to march off but they contrarily grounded their arms and asked for the guinea first. Windham arrested one soldier who seemed to be schooling the others. He was attacked by a shower of stones from the other soldiers and the crowd of their relatives who were on-lookers. Windham stayed with his prisoner overnight. In the small hours, the other soldiers attempted to release the prisoner but Windham drew his sword and opposed them. The prisoner then saved Windham by telling the crowd that, should they release him, he would voluntarily submit to recapture. That defused the situation and the battalion soon after marched into Suffolk.
Windham was an independent thinker who always followed his own mind. This caused him to frequently change his friends. The best example of this trait was when Addington’s ministry fell and Pitt returned for a 2nd ministry. Windham was then allied with Fox (his old school friend) and opposed to Pitt. They had been in constant agreement until the French Revolution but had drawn different conclusions from that paroxysm. Windham remained ideologically a Foxite but practical considerations required he liaise with Pitt – he was always concerned with measures not men. He was not alone in his decision in 1793 – Burke, FitzWilliam, Spencer and others crossed the floor and only Portland remained with the liberal Whigs.
On the commencement of the present war after the farce of Amiens, Windham’s concern over the Revolution had evaporated with the changes adopted within France. We were no longer fighting for restoration of French monarchy and Catholicism. The concepts of liberty and equality had been subordinated to a military government which had been reorganised into a formidable power.
Sat 10th April 1813
The London Press has insinuated that Lord Yarmouth returned to England by breaking his parole to the French Government. Yarmouth has written a correction to the papers on 13th Aug:
The peace of Amiens was ended by the British seizure of French crews and ships and other French people in England. France responded with a similar measure. Since May 1803 there has been a large group of English prisoners in France who gave their parole of good behaviour. A few months afterwards, a small group of them tried to escape and our paroles were no longer considered reliable. All the British prisoners, who until then had lived where they chose in France, were subsequently concentrated at Verdun.
After two years, Fox came briefly into power, and, at the command of the Prince of Wales, requested and obtained my release. I, the Earl of Elgin and General Abercromby all signed paroles agreeing to return to France when requested. We left via Morlaix in May 1806. I was then appointed British Agent in Paris and Fox obtained French agreement to release me from my parole on the grounds that it was inappropriate for a diplomatic agent shielded under the Law of Nations.
Sat 17th April 1813
In August 1812, the émigré Duke of Richelieu wrote a letter from Odessa that reveals Russian strategy in the war with France:
The plan is to abandon part of the country and draw the French in until their communications are very extended. Once France began to display weakness due to shortages, we planned to attack her in every possible way. In this way we initially declined combat and retreated. Now the French are doing the same on their withdrawal from Russia.
Count Wittgenstein managed to catch Oudinot at the River Dwina. He captured 2 cannon and 3,500 prisoners.
The Tsar is paying off his infantry. He will rely on the Cossack cavalry. Nevertheless, great numbers of demobilised men are calling for re-employment and a further chance to attack the French. Here at Odessa the people have offered 300,000 Roubles and 400 fully-equipped horsemen to the Tsar. Similar enthusiasm exists everywhere.
The Russian army of Moldavia numbers 60,000 men and I (Richelieu) command a unit. We are marching to attack the French rear.
Sat 17th April 1813
The offence given by the Court of Naples to the Sicilians was unnecessary. The Bourbon King wanted to hunt and closed-off the lands around Palermo for this purpose. That irritated the local people who had formerly used those lands. He created another hunting enclosure around the town of Figuzza and alienated still more of his people. The population of Sicily is 1.5 millions.
The King’s friends from Naples took over all the offices of Sicilian government. Whilst the King hunted, the Queen usurped the reins of government in the familiar way of Naples and lavished the national treasure on herself and her friends. To ensure control, the Queen employed the Neapolitan Castroni to operate a police. He filled the gaols with all sorts of people quite independent of the judiciary. Anyone enquiring into this system of detention was himself detained. In this way the Queen has removed criticism and spent more than the subsidy granted from London.
She was obliged to meet the expenses of keeping the King content and of deflecting the enquiries of the British minister Sir John Stuart. That meant wasting some money repairing the fortifications at Trapani and erecting batteries at Palermo but it kept complaints within bounds.
The revenue of Sicily is £700,000 and over half of that is British subsidies. When she had spent the allocation, the Queen turned to the ecclesiastical benefices. The monasteries were required to pay a large part of their income to the Queen and her friends. The councils of the various towns all save some treasure for the purchase of grain in times of shortage – she confiscated that and issued a paper currency in substitution. To get the towns to accept her notes, she made the issue interest bearing although it was well understood by the Court that there was no fund from which to meet these annual charges. Private merchants and landowners throughout the island were visited and required to exchange their treasure for paper notes.
By the time the Queen had spent this, the people had become more wily in secreting their remaining wealth, and the Queen was persuaded to constitute a parliament for the purpose of raising taxes. Her daughter is married to the Duc d’Orleans and she expected support but was restrained by a legal provision in Sicily that permits only parliament to vote taxes.
The Constitution of Sicily has remained unchanged since the reign of Roger the Norman (a cousin of William the Conqueror) in 11th century. Roger was passing through the Mediterranean on the Pope’s great crusade against the Muslims in Jerusalem. He only got as far as Sicily, where he expelled the Muslims and gave their lands in three equal parts to the church, his generals and to himself as King. These three groups appoint representatives. The King’s party has 40 seats and is usually allied with the clerics. The generals became fief-holders and in due course assumed a controlling position – their fiefs, each of which returns one vote, increased to 280. Fiefs are traded amongst the barons - it only requires a payment to the King to ratify transfers. Over time, some of landowners became politically important whilst most others faded away. The assent of any two of these three bodies is necessary to make new law.
The Kings of Naples have historically been cautious in their dealings with the barons of Sicily. They have assumed that everything can be done with baronial support and nothing without it. They have seldom relied on their ability to control two houses and legislate without the support of the barons because such legislation avails them nothing unless it is respected by the people - that requires the landowners co-operation for enforcement.
To direct the parliament, the Queen has had to spend heavily on her spies and that’s the problem - to get more revenue she has to spend more money. She required 360,000 ounces of silver a year from parliament and they approved only 150,000. It was one of those rare occasions when the barons allied with the clerics to defeat the King, or in this case, the Queen. Worse, parliament voted that the main burden for tax payment should fall upon the rich, so it appeared to be the parliamentary intention that the Queen’s group fund itself, so to speak. She got that reversed by a thoroughly unconstitutional process but still she only had 150,000 ounces.
This confrontation with the representatives in 1810 brought her extravagance to the knowledge of the people and a threat to public order manifested. To respond to this she needed more troops. That is always expensive - you have to pay for them whether they are in use or not. She tried a lottery of lands, most of which had been confiscated from people for failure to pay tax, and that added to the odium surrounding her. She then came up with a novel tax – a 1% charge on every property transfer - and all the shopkeepers had to keep records of Bills they had received and paid and send in 1% of their total value each week. 1% sounds inconsequential but Bills circulate continually through the local economy and the cumulative effect of the new tax cost the merchants 15 – 20% of their turnover every week. They could not pay.
This led to the exploitation of the grain reserves, the last thing of value that the country had to offer. The towns of Sicily all bought grain from the farmers to create a reserve for times of shortage. This was now incrementally sold-off to meet tax commitments and provoked considerable popular consternation.
Sir John Stuart raised the alarm when he learned that the warehouses of Messina refused to allow grain to be removed. The people of Messina were angry but remained peaceable in the presence of the British army. They appealed to Stuart for justice and for a while the government collectors became more consensual and compromised on tax payments. The popular champion who emerged at this time was Belmonte, the baron who had opposed the Queen’s attempt to get 360,000 ounces in 1810. He caused a petition to be presented to the King which alarmed the Queen. This put the entire country in confrontation with the Queen and the Neapolitan émigrés. She had one ace – about 14,000 troops at Palermo were deserters from the French and Italian armies and were as dependant on her as she was on them. If the people chose violence she could ensure it would be a bloody affair.
The Sicilians therefore put their trust in Bentinck who knew their situation and had just gone to London to report. The British had 18,000 troops locked-up in Sicily when they desperately needed reinforcements in Spain. They might also threaten an end of subsidies which act alone might have brought the Queen to her senses. On the other hand the British could not alienate the Sicilian government so long as they relied on Sicilian grain to provision Malta. They were also attracted to the many thousands of troops that Sicily could provide. Thoughts along these lines persuaded Stuart to withhold his troops from executing the designs of the Queen. The British force was adequate to counter any moves of the Queen’s troops. The Queen was obliged to use her spies to denigrate the British as best she could. This inevitably encouraged the Francophile party in Sicily to reveal itself and offer a remedy. On 19th July the King attended a Council at which it was agreed to arrest Belmonte and four other leading barons and reassert monarchical government. They were arrested at night and sent off in a small boat belonging to a gentleman named Cacaci.
Bentinck had by then become Governor and his initial policy was to conciliate the Queen’s party, but without success. He returned to London for instructions and Lt General Maitland became the British Resident in his absence. He exposed several plots and maintained a semblance of good order until Bentinck’s return. Then the Duc d’Orleans counselled the King and he was induced to assert his authority over the Queen. He took the troops from her control and put them under Bentinck. He released those Barons who had been arrested.
Britain is now required to restore the Constitutional arrangements of Sicily in a way that will be universally acclaimed. This was the background to Bentinck’s uncommonly liberal Constitution. The farmers and artisans are freed from oppression, whether from clerics, barons or Kings. A balance between freedom and service is established that is acceptable to all.
This measure has prospects of resurrecting Sicily and her famous port of Syracuse to its ancient glory.
Sat 24th April 1813
A man in Vienna received a letter from Austrian Poland in early October concerning the plight of the European army. He has just provided it to the newspaper.
Napoleon send General Lauriston to General Kutusow and proposed peace. Kutusow said this is not the time for peace - your army is cut-off, your men are unfed, they have neither arms nor ammunition, your horses are starved and unable to work - you must surrender your officers and men unconditionally as prisoners-of-war and order your forces in Poland and Germany to immediately return to France. Lauriston’s response is not reported.
Napoleon is said to have assumed Caulaincourt’s identity and separated from his army. The European troops are making their way west as best they can. All Europe is astonished that these barbarous Russians have defeated the French.
Another letter reports the Russians entered Warsaw on 23rd October.
Sat 24th April 1813
It now appears that Napoleon was baited by the Russians. They agreed truces between the advanced posts of each army then broke them. This likely incensed Napoleon who is a stickler for honour. When he saw the trench works thrown-up in front of Moscow he assumed a stand was finally to be made, but the Russians abandoned their lines after dark and left the city for the French. In this way they enticed him on. Moscow is mainly a wooden city and the Governor fired it after he had released and armed the prisoners in the gaols. Of 8,000 wooden structures, some 500 remain. There are also some 200 stone houses still standing. The population of about 200,000 was left to scour the street for food – it was the army, the nobles and officials who left first. It would have required 20,000 men to secure the city. Kutusow abandoned his 30,000 wounded in Moscow - they would have slowed his retreat.
The only punishment that Napoleon could devise was to destroy the Kremlin, which he did on 23rd Sept. He is really surprised the Tsar did not defend his capital and shocked that the Emperor should adopt Tartar tactics against a European foe. Napoleon has been told that to avenge the burning of a single village, it is the Tartar way to burn a hundred. There are 2,000 villages within 20 miles of Moscow and about the same number of castles and country estates of the nobility. Napoleon has declined to enter into this type of warfare. He has destroyed the Kremlin and the Russian army barracks in accordance with the usual rules of European war. He pursued the Russian armies here and there but they always fled. The people the French see regularly are the bands of mounted Cossacks who remain beyond musket-range and adopt the tactics of guerrilla warfare.
Sat 1st May 1813
The British Privy Council response to the American declaration of war, has been to issue another Order-in-Council on 31st July requiring the detention of American shipping and cargoes except those with British Licences. It says:
The US has issued letters-of-marque to privateers and not withdrawn them after learning that our Orders-in-Council were ended. We will reciprocate.23
The truce agreed between Prevost and Dearborn on the Canadian frontier was not ratified by the US Congress and Washington has directed that hostilities be recommenced.
The senior British naval officer at Halifax is empowered to annul all hostile British Orders if there is a prospect of US amity.
Sgd Castlereagh, Liverpool, Bathurst, Melville, Sidmouth, N Vansittart and Charles Long.
Sat 1st May 1813
Cathcart has been given Plenipotentiary powers and sent to St Petersburg to represent England. On 15th Sept (the day Napoleon entered Moscow), Cathcart reported a magnificent Russian victory over the French at Borodino ten days earlier.
The French offered emancipation and liberty to the Russian serfs in an attempt to win them to their side but the serfs were fearful. They could not conceive of those possibilities and had to ask their feudal Lord first.
The French repeatedly attacked the left of the Russian army at Borodino but were unable to make any permanent impression all day. In the evening they withdrew leaving the field to the Russians, hence the battle is claimed as a Russian victory.
An announcement from the Tsar has also arrived. He acknowledges the loss of his capital city but asserts its only a temporary reversal necessarily incurred to effect the ultimate ruin of the French. The population and food in Moscow had been removed before the French arrival:
“Napoleon thought I would wait in my capital to receive his instructions. He erred. I have mobilised my forces around Moscow. Every French foraging party is being annihilated (another breach of the former rules of war). They will have no provisions. He came here with 300,000 troops from all over Europe. Before arriving at Moscow he had already lost half his force to hunger, sickness, desertion and battle. Of my four armies, one confronts and harasses him while the other three have cut off his retreat. It has fallen to Russia to save Europe.”
Kutusow commenced his offensive operations on 18th Oct.
Sat 1st May 1813
The Russian peace with Turkey establishes a new frontier along the line of the River Prut from the Moldavian border to the Danube, then along that river to the Chilia and thence to the Black Sea. The Danube to its confluence with the Prut may be navigated by Russian warships; the upper part of the river is opened to both country’s merchant ships. Wallachia is restored to Turkey.
Any Muslims wishing to return to Turkish lands have 18 months to remove; likewise Christians in Turkish lands. Turkey agrees to demolish its forts in Serbia and grant amnesty to those people for their rebellion. Turkey agrees to mediate between Russia and Persia and fix their mutual frontier.
Sat 8th May 1813
According to the 1810 Pensions List of the Navy:
31 Commissioners of the Admiralty, their wives and clerks receive more in pensions than all the wounded naval officers of England.
13 daughters of deceased Admirals and Captains receive less than a commissioner’s widow.
The sinecures of Lords Arden, Camden and Buckingham are greater than the total of all naval pensions. Buckingham’s sinecures alone would fund the navy’s victualling departments at Chatham, the Downs, Dover, Gibraltar, Malta, the Cape, Heligoland and Rio and still leave £5,466 in the Treasury.
Capt Johnson, who lost an arm, gets £45 a year and Lt Chambers, who lost both legs, gets £80 whilst the clerk who runs the Admiralty ticket office gets £700. On this basis Lord Arden is worth 1,822 Captain’s arms or 964 Lieutenant’s legs.
Such are the rewards for naval service.
Tues 11th May 1813 Extraordinary
Cathcart has written again from St Petersburg on 11th Nov:
Napoleon has left Moscow on the road to Smolensk. The French have destroyed an immense amount of their ammunition and appear to be fleeing. They are attacked on all sides by Cossack cavalry and dragoons. The road is littered with French dead for mile after mile. They have no food for horses which consequently cannot pull the cannon. Without cannon they are vulnerable to Cossack tactics. The French troops are hungry, tired and dispirited.
Russia re-occupied Moscow on 22nd Oct.
General Winzingerode and an aide complained under a flag of truce at the resistance of the French rear guard and were arrested (the Russians are not fighting under the rules of war and Napoleon is reciprocating – truces do not feature in this campaign).
At first it appeared Napoleon would attempt to break through to the southern provinces but he has since resumed the retreat towards Smolensk. The Russians have captured a General from the French commissariat. It appears he was victualling 120,000 men and this had reduced to 85,000 on the evacuation of Moscow.
Sir Robert Wilson and Lord Tyconnel are attached with the Russian forces and reporting all developments as they occur.
On 23rd Nov Cathcart wrote again:
The French are being annihilated. The Russians are everywhere victorious. They spray the French columns with grapeshot as they pass. The armies of Davoust and Ney were cut off and surrendered. French artillery prisoners have told us where Napoleon left cannon on his way to Moscow and we are working to discover them and remove or spike them before his arrival.
Sat 15th May 1813
Wellesley in the House of Lords, in a speech on the Regent’s address to parliament, has lauded the Russians and criticised the ministry for failing to properly supply his brother Wellington. Armies cannot be moved quickly – they cannot protect as much territory as the minister believes.
Salamanca on 22nd July was a fluke. The French made a mistake and Wellington exploited it. In the result, the French had to raise the siege of Cadiz and were driven out of the south. At that time the British army had $20,000 in the war chest. Wellington then besieged Burgos with 2 x 18 pounders!
The day we entered Spain from Portugal we needed more men and money. The French have the bigger army and, of greater concern, the bigger cavalry. The minister insists Spain is a mere diversion to draw French resources from the action in Russia. Both Spain and Russia are desolated places where no support can be had. An army fighting in either place must bring its own provisions and money with it – its not like the rest of Europe where you may live off the land. That appears to have been unexpected by Napoleon.
We are not taking advantage of our situation. We have allies in the Baltic but do nothing there. By a peculiar treaty, we have engaged to defend Sweden without requiring an equivalent. Our agreement recognises Bernadotte as Prince of Sweden. With that agreement in their pockets, the Swedes disembarked their expedition and waited for us to act. General Victor who had been waiting on the Pomeranian frontier to oppose the Swedish expedition immediately moved off to support Napoleon in Russia. The addition of Victor’s army enabled Napoleon to enter Moscow. The support we gave Russia was 50,000 muskets. That Swedish expedition might have held down Victor or, in his absence, cut across Napoleon’s communications but our undertaking gave Bernadotte no reason to do so.
In America we have assumed that the repeal of the Orders-in-Council would be sufficient to end the war. In fact the Americans had several complaints in their Declaration and the Orders was only one of them. Another complaint was that we make America smuggle our manufactures into Europe - it is certainly an injustice if it can be fixed on us. Another complaint was that in 1809 we sent Capt Henry to dissolve the Union. I (Wellesley) was foreign minister at the time and I never heard of it. We never answered those charges as we should have. Nevertheless, our correct policy now towards America is to reveal her danger to her in terms of pristine clarity and educate her to prefer peace.
Sat 15th May 1813
Commons, 10th Dec – The Regent wishes to reward the Hanoverian Legion for its bravery at Salamanca by giving the officers and men permanent rank in the British army. Its illegal to put foreigners over British officers. Palmerston said ‘permanent’ in War Office parlance does not really mean ‘permanent’.
Sat 15th May 1813
Lords Buckingham and Camden have been stung by publication of the income from their sinecures at the Treasury - they are both Tellers of the Exchequer. On 21st Nov they directed that a third of their emoluments from the Tellerships be paid into the Bank of England as voluntary contributions to the public purse.
Sat 15th May 1813
Winter set in on the French army in Russia on 7th Nov. Within a week the temperature dropped to 16ºF (-9ºC) and 30,000 horses died. The French now have neither cavalry nor artillery. Their army has become a straggling column of dispirited men. Platoff’s Cossacks fight like Arabs – they continuously circle the French on horseback and move in when they can pick off small groups that have separated from the rest. They are implacable butchers and plunderers.
Wed 19th May 1813 Extraordinary
London, 13th Oct - America has declared war on Britain and offered Letters of Marque to her nationals. The Regent signed an Order-in-Council on 31st July enabling the arrest and detention of American ships and cargoes until further notice.
He now allows General Reprisals against the ships, goods and people of America, excepting only those American ships that trade under a British Licence.
HM fleet and any private ships authorised by Letters of Marque from the Lord High Admiral may seize the ships, goods and people of America and bring them to judgment in the Admiralty Courts within my domains in accordance with the Law of Nations.
This authorisation may be overridden by the senior naval officer at Halifax who is authorised in certain conditions to agree peace with the Americans. Any ships etc taken after the date of any such agreement will be released.
Sat 22nd May 1813
Lord Liverpool has responded to Wellesley’s disapproval (above):
He told the House of Lords that war in Europe was first against strong governments and involved army against army. The citizenry of Holland, Prussia, Austria, Italy etc were uninvolved.
The war in the peninsula is qualitatively different. The Spanish King abdicated and his son Ferdinand VII expressly declined the monarchy. It is the people who are fighting to expel the French armies and place Ferdinand on the throne. We have a duty to help them. We have 91,000 British and German troops in Iberia and the Mediterranean. The Portuguese have 36,000. The numbers of Spanish guerrillas are unknown. This year we have sent an additional 20,000 troops and 7,000 horses to Iberia.
Wellington complains of a shortage of equipment and money but that is always the case in war. France is also having difficulty. In fact Wellington is well equipped. Britain is not levying contributions on the Spanish people. They do not like us much anyway and if we charge them for our help, they will object. They have seen independence affecting all their colonies except Philippines and suspect our involvement in those changes. By relieving them of the costs of our assistance, we assure ourselves of their co-operation in the struggle with France. The problem really is silver. We allow Wellington to draw sufficient Bills but discounting of British Bills by Iberian merchants is frightful. Its due to the chaos in South America where independence movements are deranging mine production and shipment of silver.
Once we had a controlling position in Sicily, we sent Wellington 5,000 troops from the garrison there. That is as much as we can do in the Mediterranean. We are making progress. Whilst the Cortes (and then the Regency) was shut up in Cadiz, we appeared to be supporting a government without a country, but now southern Spain is relieved of French armies, the Regency can authentically claim to act for about half of the people. Most of our recent difficulties have been due to disobedience of orders by General Ballesteros and the Spanish army.
As regards America, Congress repeatedly indicated that the Non-Importation Act would be repealed when our Orders-in-Council were repealed. They declared war before they knew of our repeal. It had seemed a reasonable expectation that, once they knew of our repeal, they would make peace and repeal the Non-Importation Act. That has not occurred yet. Who would have thought that they might become hostile?
Grenville also spoke in the debate:
If the British army was removed from Spain the country would be instantly overrun by France. The Spanish army is incompetent and unreliable. Our presence there is a continuation of the same thinking that put an expedition into Walcheren. The Austrians required a diversion of us at that time and, instead of landing in northern Germany, we opted for Walcheren and lost an entire expeditionary force in the marshes, and hardly diverted any French forces. It seemed to Grenville that it was not us diverting French forces but France diverting ours. The problem in Spain was that, whilst the people were generally willing to oppose France, the government was unconvinced. There is an endless succession of examples of where Wellington had relied on Spanish support and been let down. We have had years of this unsupportive Spanish government and should have responded to them the way they respond to us.
Here in England, it has been our policy for years to retain all the gold and silver that comes into the country and press paper on our people for domestic exchange. We have raised an astonishing amount of revenue from our people which secures an even greater and more astonishing amount of debt. Where has the bullion gone? Why is Wellington’s military chest not full.
Sweden has become one of our few allies but we demand nothing of her.
As for America, Liverpool’s professed belief that the repeal of the Orders would have instantly induced peace is absurd and unrealistic. It is always the case in our American policy that we act too late. Timely concessions would have raised the voice of the Anglophile party and avoided all our present difficulties. Now we are asked to approve a war without any documentation that might make it appear just or desirable. It was never a question of sacrificing our maritime rights to appease America. We are at war due solely to ministerial neglect.
Melville reminded the House that the British naval force at Halifax was twice the size of the American navy. Its only our land forces that need reinforcement.
Sat 22nd May 1813
The American President has written to Congress on 4th Nov 1812:
Our country is fertile, we have great harvests, our people are healthy. There is much to be thankful for.
General Hull was defeated at Detroit. Our attempt to occupy Lower Canada failed. We will now seek for naval control of the Lakes. Both Massachusetts and Connecticut have declined to provide troops and materiel to the national effort. They have relied on a Constitutional provision relating to militias. We are at war and these states are declining to defend themselves. Our militias are the means we chose Constitutionally to avoid having an expensive standing army. That is the alternative, if individual states believe they can act independently.
At sea we have most of our merchant fleet safely returned. We have defeated a British frigate and captured several merchant ships. This will permit Britain to perceive the inconvenience and injustice of her maritime policies.
On declaring war I advised the British government of our terms for its cessation - the Orders must be repealed; no unlawful blockades instituted; our sailors must be released from British naval service; all impressment from American ships must stop (except the repatriation of British seamen) and a comprehensive adjustment of all our differences be negotiated.
Since I last addressed you there has been the promulgation of a French Decree purporting to be a definitive repeal of the Berlin and Milan Decrees which we have made the grounds for a repeal of the British Orders-in-Council. The Decree is, by its timing and manner, liable to many objections.
Our minister at Copenhagen has confirmed the amicable disposition of the Danish government. Russia has assured us of her continuing friendship and assured us it will continue despite our differences with England. Sweden has also expressed sentiments of harmony.
The high wages available in this country for all forms of employment have made recruiting for our national militias difficult. We need to relate the wage we can pay to the terms of service. This difficulty affects both regular and volunteer soldiers. Our main claim on the time of the people has been patriotism.
Our law that bars Americans from taking out British Licences is abused. Congress must consider better means of preventing our ships being used in the service of the enemy. We need new law, short of treason, to create the penal provisions necessary to deter the shipowners. A considerable number of American ships that were in British ports when the Orders were repealed have now arrived home with cargoes of British manufactures under the erroneous belief that the Non-Importation Act would be repealed once the Orders had ended. The amount of American capital involved made it improper to enforce the law on these ships. Congress needs to consider our policy towards this.
The Federal revenue for the year ending 30th Sept is $16.5 millions. $8.85 millions is in respect of loans authorised in the last Congressional session. We now have $11 millions of loans, the outstanding balance of which is payable after Sept. We have paid-off $3 millions from this year’s revenue. The duties received on the flood of British manufactures imported as noted above, will provide us with a greater revenue for the coming year that had been anticipated.
Our enemy is powerful in the means of violence but we have grounds for optimism. We are not fighting for mere glory or greed but for the maintenance of our natural rights. We have been endlessly patient until all hope of compromise was extinguished by the British minister to Washington telling us that his government’s Orders could not be revoked without abrogating agreements Britain has made with her allies. He acknowledged they also promote her own interests. We had no choice but to act. The sea covers the preponderant part of the planet and is a resource belonging to all independent nations in equal and common rights. Our cause is just. We will prevail.
Sat 22nd May 1813
Napoleon appointed de Lesseps as Governor of Moscow and ordered him to arrange the supply of provisions for the army. The very few Russian merchants remaining in Moscow declined to offer supply but some Russian Jews agreed to visit all the surrounding villages and procure whatever was available. They said they needed gold or silver to pay for it. de Lesseps saw no alternative to handing over the money. The Jews said ‘see you soon’ and he waited and waited until an uncomfortable feeling arose. There was no further sight of the Jews, the money or the food. Lesseps was then formally disgraced.
Sat 29th May 1813
Further to the excerpts from Cathcart’s letters from Moscow published previously, we now have a military report up to 1st Dec.
The Russians re-occupied Minsk and obtained a great supply of French provisions and war materiel. They defeated General Dombrovski (commander of the Polish army). Napoleon joined his army with Oudinot and Victor but, although he had 80,000 men, he was unwilling to attack us.
The European infantry stayed in a forest where our Cossack cavalry could not get at them. Then General Wittgenstein arrived and our combined forces overwhelmed the enemy. Most of them drowned in the river, the survivors were killed with the sword. Napoleon lost 25,000 men – people from every country in Europe. Our armies are following and our Cossacks are constantly harassing him. He is hurrying to Wilna (Vilnius).
Sat 29th May 1813
The London Prices Current for 22nd Dec reveals the types of imports at that city:
North America – cotton, rice, tar, beeswax.
West Indies – coffee, cotton, ginger, indigo.
From South America – coffee, cotton, hides and indigo.
From Africa – aloes (from the Cape) and ivory.
From the Baltic – flax, hemp, tar, iron.
East Indies – coffee, cotton, gums, indigo, spices, medicines, rice, sago, opium, saltpetre, silk, sugar and timber.
Sat 29th May 1813
London, trade report 22nd Dec - Large sales of coffee have depressed interest but owners are not cutting prices. Most of the last auction was bought-in. Speculation has evaporated and the Licensed trade has shrunk to so small a scale as to be insignificant. Prices will only recover when the Baltic trade is reopened. Russian military success suggests this may occur in the Spring.
Sugar is selling well.
Cotton from North America and West Indies is selling briskly. 14,000 packages were sold to the spinners of Manchester last week and our manufacturing classes are reviving.
Rice is unavailable.
Sat 29th May 1813
The 18-gun sloop USS Wasp (Jones) captured the 20-gun sloop HMS Frolic but then encountered the capital ship HMS Poicteurs (74) which took both sloops to Bermuda.
Sat 29th May 1813
The American ship Alligator (Moriaty) arrived 6th May in Calcutta. She left Salem on 7th Dec under a Licence of Sir John Borlase Warren, our Admiral at Halifax. Moriaty says many American ships sailed to Lisbon and Cadiz at about the same time. They supply grain cargoes to the British army in Iberia under Warren’s Licences. He says Madison remains highly popular and is expected to win the next Presidential election.
The naval office at Halifax reports a large American privateer escaped the blockade and is believed to be sailing for the Cape. She has 20 guns and 200 men.
Sat 5th June 1813
The British are in alliance with the native Indians of Canada. This has caused the Americans to declare war on all the tribes. The invasion by Cols Newman and Wilkinson of respectively St Augustine in East Florida and Pensacola in West Florida both use this pretext for their attacks on the Seminoles.
Nevertheless, both towns still remain Spanish. An expedition from Tennessee has set off for Mexico to revolutionise the residents.
Sat 5th June 1813
Jonathan Russell, the American minister to London, resigned on 1st Sept. He says he can make no progress with Foreign Minister Castlereagh. He prefers to negotiate through the British Admiral at Halifax.
On 29th Aug Castlereagh declined to negotiate. When he withdrew his ambassador from Washington, he transferred the diplomatic functions to the Admiral at Halifax. He says America must stop fighting and do as he says. He says I (Russell) have no powers and its useless to talk to me. He insists the pressing of British seamen from foreign ships is an ancient British practice.
Russell has sent a bitter letter to Castlereagh. All his zealous attempts to find a peaceful solution have been ignored. Castlereagh knows the American complaints. I offered to procure a law prohibiting the employment of British seamen on American national ships, provided Castlereagh would cease impressing Americans. If Castlereagh would agree to respond to all our concerns, I offered to procure an armistice to negotiate within 60 days of his so doing. The longer the war continues the more difficult it will be to have peace.
On 12th Sept I attended Castlereagh at the Foreign Office. He was not there and I was told to write for an appointment. On 15th Sept Russell sent in a new peace proposal. Castlereagh was busy. His staff told Russell to wait a few days. Russell says he will wait until 20th Sept. On 16th evening he got an audience and proposed peace. Castlereagh said he was not prepared to discuss peace and only wanted to check my powers. I left my proposals and on 18th Sept Castlereagh said the new proposal is the same as the 24th Aug proposal. Castlereagh also said I (Russell) was not empowered to resolve the impressment question, having resigned on 1st Sept.
Castlereagh made some reference to ‘his friends in Congress’ but, seeing my black look, he corrected himself to refer to those representatives who did not support war with England. It is Russell’s suspicion that America has overly relied on King’s friendship with Lord St Vincent. He says Castlereagh disabused him of this notion by revealing a letter of St Vincent’s in which the Admiral says he cannot see a basis to discontinue the war.
Russell is leaving from Plymouth on USS Lark. He will leave Reuben Gaunt Beasley behind to arrange exchanges of prisoners. He has informed all the foreign ambassadors in London of his departure.
Sat 5th June 1813
Long review of Memoirs of the Public Life of John Horne Tooke by Hamilton Reid, 1812
Sat 5th June 1813
Lord Folkestone asked last session for details of foreign officers in British service and, after a long wait, the minister has now provided a return of foreign officers on British service in England.
Palmerston said he did not understand the complaint, if that is what it was. The King’s German Legion was a temporary force to employ the great numbers of German officers who came to England in 1804 after the occupation of Hanover. Its only superficially conflicted with the terms of the Act of Settlement.
We employed Bourbon émigrés in all the insurrections of Europe and by 1804 we had no officer jobs left overseas for the Germans. Most of these Germans were previously in service to George III in Hanover. They have often fought for Britain. They are almost British. Their employment hardly affects the promotion prospects of British officers. They are not entitled to half-pay. When German officers serve with other nationalities’ forces, it is the senior officer who commands the joint force – they get no preference. They are allowed to retain the ranks and titles they collect in our service – that is just to motivate them.
The British population is small whilst Napoleon has all of Europe to draw his forces from. We need reinforcements. We have always had German mercenaries in our service. They are big chaps who fight hard. Now Europe is under French dominion, these fellows have come to England but its just the same as before.
Lord Ponsonby objected to Palmerston’s characterisation of their employment as temporary. Their Articles refer to permanent employment. When the duties of the War Office end with the peace, will Palmerston’s permanent employment become temporary, he wondered.
Milton said the objection was to German officers commanding British troops. There were language and cultural differences. Baron Linsingen commanded the Eastern district of England and a British regiment. The Constitution allows foreign officers to be employed only overseas.
Palmerston said Linsingen only briefly commanded a district on the death of Lord Chatham but in fact a British officer had been appointed within a few months to replace Chatham and thereafter Linsingen only commanded the depot.
General Stewart said he could see no difference between a German officer commanding British troops and a British officer (Wellington et al) commanding Portuguese or Spanish troops. The German Baron Alten commanded the Light Division in the peninsula. The first regiment of German hussars was the finest regiment in the whole British army of Spain.
Canning said we should not deprecate foreigners. William of Orange gave us our Constitution. We allowed his Dutch troops to garrison England.
Folkestone reminded the House that it was in the first year after the accession of the House of Brunswick that an Act of Parliament was voted to regulate the employment of Hanoverian soldiers.
Sat 12th June 1813
The Russians have entered Vilnius and taken the remains of the French army – 8 generals, 400 officers, 25,000 troops, 400 cannon etc have been seized. Napoleon’s personal baggage containing a multitude of state papers was also taken. McDonald’s army is still retreating west but the River Niemen is supposed impassable and he cannot escape far. Tsar Alexander is travelling from St Petersburg to Vilnius. The armies of all the states of Europe have so far lost 150,000 killed and nearly 100,000 captured. Russians losses are not quantified.
General Kutusow has proclaimed a new organisation of Poland, much to their advantage, and calling on them to oppose the French. Thousands are flocking to his standards.
Sat 12th June 1813
Paris newspaper - we French resent violations of the code of honour. The Tsar promises one thing and does another; General de York commanding the Prussian army is first our ally then our enemy. What will replace honour to adjust the affairs of nations?
All basis to trust between countries is destroyed by English principles - “my word is meaningless, my bribe is my bond”
Sat 19th June 1813
Russia has not only ejected the French army but has co-incidentally over-run Poland. A large part of the French army surrendered at Vilnius and MacDonald’s army surrendered at the River Niemen. The Prussians had changed sides by then and did not defend Prussian Poland which fell to the Russians. The Tsar has occupied Warsaw and Konigsberg and his army is besieging Danzig. The Russian advanced guard has reached Upper Saxony and is at the doors of Frankfurt (on the Oder), Dresden and Berlin.
Since Napoleon started the retreat from Moscow, he has lost 180,000 men to the Russians as prisoners and at least that number again in men killed.
Sat 19th June 1813
Paris, 11th Jan 1813 – the Senate has voted a conscription of 350,000 men for war service.
Sat 19th June 1813
USS United States (Decatur) has captured HMS Macedonian (Carden) on 25th October 1812 off the Moroccan coast. Decatur assumed a position ahead of the British warship where he was protected from her broadsides.
Sat 26th June 1813
Edinburgh Review has commented on the American War:
Madison spoke about the justice of America’s cause; we spoke about the honour of H M’s crown. When push came to shove, we abandoned the King’s honour and repealed the hated Orders. Those Orders have brought suffering to millions and it is to America’s honour that the perpetrators of these despicable British Orders have been hoisted with their own petard.
We have agreed with the American definition of blockaded port – a place so threatened and surrounded as to be dangerous to enter – and anything less than that is not a blockade.
The problem is with our ideas of maritime right. We have ruined everyone’s trade and have caused general distress throughout the world and particularly in Europe. Our own country has not been spared. If our policy is taken to its logical conclusion, universal war will result and misery will be widespread. As St Vincent said, we have ‘put our head in a bucket of water to see who can hold his breath longest’. Some limit must be set on the persecution of trade as a legitimate act of war. It has only been tolerable in England for so long because we have adapted our trade to smuggling. We hold our asserted rights as sacred but eventually we have to equate them with the rights of everyone else.
While we permitted neutral states to carry the foreign and coasting trade of the enemy (under some restrictions) there was no problem. It gave the French importer more work to do and raised the costs of his imports, but generally, it worked. This process of charging the enemy a higher than market price for his imports is as far as maritime rights ought to go. But we have pressed it to the extinction of maritime trade. When people cannot sell, they cannot buy and Napoleon assured that with his Decrees which hurt us more than they hurt Europe. We are after all dependent on maritime trade.24 The distress we cause our enemy almost immediately rebounds on us. If we restore the carrying trade of the neutral states, we restore the fortunes of the British farmer and factory worker.
Impressment of American seamen is a valid complaint. English and American people have the same customs and language. Its difficult to distinguish them. Our naval commanders board American ships and summarily deem ‘this man is English’. American crews all generally hold Certificates of American Citizenship but we know these are issued all over America on application and we do not respect their validity. We have impressed many people, born in America, and sent them all over the planet in our service and we never know what nationality they are unless the relatives and the parish records are produced.
We have a reasonable claim to look for our runaways but we exercise it arrogantly. Better regulation by the Admiralty might have avoided most of the complaints but our ship commanders are perennially short of men and no doubt biased. To rest our system on the discretion of these officers is bound to cause trouble.
This shortage of naval crews is itself aggravated by our system. As a general rule if you create a surplus of anything, you are never short of it. The surplus of our seamen comes from our fisheries and mercantile marine. If we do more trade, we get more seamen. Contrarily, we have made maritime trade a hazardous occupation.
America had become the last remaining neutral in maritime affairs. We wished to force her to carry our colonial goods and manufactures into Europe. It is imperative that they be sold and we cannot do so ourselves. This is hardly a situation in which we should lay down the law and employ violence to obtain co-operation. We have turned this prospectively helpful state into an enemy and are at war with her. Our procedure obliges neutral states to avoid contact with us and seek the more congenial trade of our enemies. No country is allowed by us to be neutral – they must be either for us or against us - this is the result of our policy.
Our trade with America was worth about £10 millions a year. We have lost that and our ability to prosecute the war is diminished by that much. We have stimulated America into manufacturing the things she has hitherto been satisfied to buy from us. Formerly her capital was mainly employed in agriculture, now it is being diverted into manufacturing. To solve a short-term problem we are constructing a long-term competitor more quickly than America herself intended. America is in a position to threaten our rule in Canada and her burgeoning wealth is an allurement to our colonialists there. She supplies most of the grain and flour to our army in Spain. Our West Indian colonies all more or less rely on America for provisions. Even in our own islands, one bad harvest requires us to import grain. Where will that come from in future?
The extent of the French defeat in Russia is just now becoming apparent and that will work in our favour but our national policies should not be based on unexpected and unpredictable occurrences.
Sat 3rd July 1813
The American Congress is debating a Bill to encourage the desertion of British sailors and their naturalisation as American subjects.
Sat 3rd July 1813
The ministry is endeavouring to regulate the new market in Licences that has sprung up in London. By making the new Licences assignable, they sell second-hand at ever increasing prices. The ministry says the rationale to transferable Licences is to permit an increase in the types of British manufacture that France is now willing to import.
Sat 3rd July 1813
Whilst Napoleon was away in the East, a conspiracy in Paris arose involving a few disenchanted Generals. The leader was previously caught rebelling but was reprieved. The Paris newspapers are full of the conspiracy and say little about Russia. The rebel Generals seized the Minister of Police, the commander of the Paris garrison and the Prefect of the Seine (the leading official of towns along that river) and were well on their way to a coup d’etat when arrested.
They have since been shot. They had intended to kill Napoleon on his return, declare the abolition of Imperial government and establish a provisional government in a hotel. The garrison of Paris has since been increased with reliable troops.
Sat 3rd July 1813
The British ministry sent Lord Walpole to Vienna to observe the peace negotiations with France. The Austrians sent him away. They are still bitter at their great losses of territory and population that resulted from following our ideas in the previous coalition. We sent expeditions to Walcheren and Spain to escape the reputation we had amongst the Kings of Europe but they still retain the idea of our perfidy. They think our concept of ‘eternal war’ is not merely intended to destroy France but all of them as well. They believe we plan to raise England to even greater power. We now treat the world’s oceans as our own property. It seems our main enemy in the Austrian camp is the French General Rapp, Governor at Danzig, who has been stirring the Anglophobe Austrians.
Sat 10th July 1813
Leipzig, 10th Nov - 200 surgeons passed through Leipzig on their way to Warsaw where part of the residue of the French army is in hospital. A caravan of wagons bringing Saxon wounded has started to arrive here from Courland and Dresden and our hospitals are full.
Sat 10th July 1813
London – The French bulletin dealing with the retreat of the army was published in Paris on 17th Nov. 30,000 copies were sold in the streets. The following day a disturbance occurred at Theatre Feydeau where a variety of things were thrown at a bust of Napoleon that is prominently displayed there. The audience became so irritated they pushed the bust off its pedestal before they left the house.
Sat 10th July 1813
Thomas Paine had a remarkable escape from the guillotine when he was imprisoned in Paris. His gaoler had the habit, upon receiving the list of names for execution, of marking the cell doors of the condemned men with chalk. On the day that Paine’s name was on the list it happened that his door was open for some reason and the chalk mark was accordingly made on the (exposed) inside. By the time the gaoler came round to collect his batch for la grande bierre voulante, Paine had closed his door and no mark was visible. He was not summoned. By the time the error was discovered the reign of terror had ended.
Sat 10th July 1813
Konigsberg, 17th Dec – French Generals are arriving here on foot wearing peasant clothes and bereft of everything. They are all injured by frost and hunger. Dukes, who have not slept in a bed for two weeks, arrive in filthy shirts.
The Duke of Brunswick and the Prince of Orange are rousing their Houses to take advantage of the French reversal. French newspapers arriving at Dover are now restricted to a readership of government officials only. English papers in Paris are completely unavailable. Until a few weeks ago they had been available to some officials but now they are being destroyed unread.
A cartel ship has arrived at Plymouth from Morlaix bringing three passengers, one of whom is an Irish priest. He says the Parisians are discontented and Napoleon fears for his safety. Soon after his return from Russia a placard appeared around town ‘Bonaparte is a murderer’. The perpetrators have not been discovered.
Sat 10th July 1813
Napoleon’s Russian reversal has healed the disputes between Wellington and the Cortes at Cadiz. They have willingly placed the Spanish forces under his command and believe it is now possible to expel the French from the Peninsula.
It is rumoured that large detachments of the French armies in Spain are being withdrawn back into France.
Sat 17th July 1813
Field Marshall Kutusow, Prince of Smolensk, has proclaimed to the Prussians that the entry of his army into Prussia is in hot pursuit of the French and the Germans have nothing to fear from him. He hopes King Frederick will provide every necessary assistance.
Sat 17th July 1813
Lord Tyrconnel has died at Vilnius. He was a volunteer with the Russian armies and advised Cathcart of progress by daily letters. It was Tyrconnel who estimated that, once the retreat from Smolensk started, 1,500 European soldiers were frozen daily on the road to Minsk and Vilnius.
Sat 17th July 1813
Parry, a merchant of Devonshire Square, has been accused of forgery on a grand scale. The total value of his forged Bills is £100,000 of which $60,000 is on one London House alone. The deceived merchants held a meeting with Parry last week at which they were sufficiently credulous to permit his departure on his agreement to return later. He has not been seen since and enquiries at his Devonshire Place office and at his country estate were unavailing. He is supposed to be in hiding in London awaiting the departure of a ship on which he has booked passage.
Sat 17th July 1813
It seems American soldiers are intolerant of discipline. It must be due to the Republican nature of their country. General Hopkin’s bloodless assault on Canada is already well known. Now General E W Tupper is competing with Hopkin. He marched his men around until only 200 of them would parade and all the others refused to play any more. The men say there is not enough food to provision an expedition to Detroit which is where he is supposed to go. Tupper held a council of his field officers and concluded that they should ignore their orders and go home.
Mon 19th July 1813 Extraordinary
USS Constitution (Bainbridge) has captured HMS Java (Lambert) off the Brazilian coast. The British frigate was too extensively damaged to be made prize and was burnt on 1st Jan 1813. The British naval officers were disgruntled by their capture and declined to provide Bainbridge with any information but there appear to have been about 400 crew on the British frigate.
Lt General Hislop, who is travelling out to India to take command of the Company’s army, was a passenger on board HMS Java and was captured along with Major Walker and Captain Wood of his staff. The warship was carrying a cargo of copper sheet for the lining of a new 75-gun capital ship currently under construction at Bombay.
Sat 24th July 1813
The formal British reply of 9th Jan 1813 to America’s Declaration of War:
The French made three complaints against the Orders-in-Council of 1806:
the only area of legitimate hostility at sea under international law was against the property of an enemy state. France objected to England seizing private property.
British blockades were not confined to fortified towns but were extended to commercial towns and the mouths of rivers used for trade.
British blockades had been applied to coasts where blockades were unlawful.
In other words, the French position was that Britain had unilaterally extended the proper field of warfare to the commerce of humanity.
The British ministry says these claims by France are all groundless. British actions at sea are lawful. France has declared she will confiscate every ship that touches an English port before visiting Europe and every ship that is visited by an English warship and is then permitted to continue its voyage. She characterises all these ships as carriers of British goods. Britain responded with the Order of Nov 1809 requiring all neutral shipping going to Europe to first visit England.
America took the French position and passed successively its Embargo, Non-Intercourse and Non-Importation Acts. We wanted her to remonstrate with France and get the Decrees repealed. America had not objected to our Order of 1806 establishing the commercial blockade. The French Decrees responded to that British measure. Then, under French pressure, America required us to forego the 1806 Orders. That was an entirely new demand and was impossible to meet. Then America says she got the Decrees repealed in so far as her own trade was concerned. That only entitled her to a repeal of our later Orders, not the 1806 order. America seems to be saying that our blockades under the 1806 orders are illegal.
The American minister in Paris on 5th Aug 1810 obtained from the French foreign minister a repeal of the Decrees effective from 1st Nov 1810 on condition that Britain revoked its Orders and renounced its new definition of blockade. Britain could never submit to make these revocations. Madison then procured the enactment and enforcement of the Non-Importation Act against England. We required America to prove that France had repealed her Decrees. It was unprecedented but the Americans tried. It was only on 21st May 1812 that the American minister to London produced a document dated 28th April 1812 that he said proved the French repeal. This document said the repeal of the Decrees was confirmed to America in consideration of her law of 1st March 1811 excluding British ships and goods from American ports. It is clear the repeal did not occur on 1st Nov but four months later - a response to the American legislation of 1st March 1811.
Britain asserts France was the aggressor in the commercial war and England was aggrieved by the Decrees. It thus sees the American legislation as an unfriendly act. It excludes British warships from American ports whilst permitting access to French warships. That is not the act of a neutral nation.
Nevertheless, we revoked the Orders effective 1st Aug provided America would revoke her discriminatory Acts.
Whilst Britain had not declared war on America, it had withdrawn its minister and transferred his functions to the Admiral in charge at Halifax in Canada.
Concerning the Order of 1806, it had been incorporated in the Orders of 1807 and 1809 and was therefore irrelevant. The American government was then informed in the report of the French foreign ministry of 12th March 1812 that the Decrees of Berlin and Milan were renewed under the pretext that they were lawfully authorised by the Treaty of Utrecht 1713.
Apart from American complaints against the Orders, there were a number of trivial complaints none of which afforded grounds for war. Madison has since proposed an armistice and now asserts that the true cause of war is the British practice of stopping and searching neutral shipping for British deserters. No legal foundation for this demand has ever been argued and we objected to it. He then called for another armistice, provided we would expressly but secretly renounce the practice in a peace treaty with America. This offensive secret clause was linked with a demand for indemnity for all the ships and cargoes we had detained and condemned under the Orders (so-called ‘illegal blockades’ in the American documents). Our compliance with this demand would have been an abrogation of the maritime rights we assert and have been endeavouring to entrench under the Law of Nations.
The sincerity of the American government is questioned. They first say they only want the Orders repealed. We repealed in the expectation that the letters–of-marque issued to American privateers would be instantly revoked. Instead America says it also needs assurances we will not press seamen from her ships.
Our Admiral at Halifax has counter-proposed that all restrictive measures on both sides be repealed but this returned a hostile demand that the suspension of our stop & search must be conceded first. We are unwilling to suspend, much less repeal, our stop & search. If the same objects can be achieved in a less offensive way, we are pleased to receive the detailed American proposals but when we discussed this with them in 1806 (when the first Order was enacted) they had no suggestions to make.
In light of the American Declaration, we now wish to state that:
the Regent believes every blockade that has been duly notified and is supported by adequate force is a lawful blockade.
He repudiates the idea that a blockade must be particular in its extent or must be accompanied by a concurrent siege by land of the ports involved.
The Regent believes that neutral trade with England is legal.
The Regent believes that the interests of neutrals are insufficient to deter a belligerent from retaliating against its enemy.
The Regent believes that stop & search on the high seas to discover British seamen is not a violation of the neutral flag. A sovereign’s right to the service of His people and His peoples’ duty to obey is indisputable. He particularly objects to any act of naturalisation that purports unilaterally to change the nationality of a person.
He believes that removing such seamen from a neutral ship is not a sufficient cause for war.
Britain denies the American assertion that we have forced her ships to carry British goods into Europe. We are willing to review the operation of the Licensing System provided we can have perfect impartiality in American policy towards France and Britain.
The real cause of the present War is the unfriendly attitude of the present American ministry towards Britain; the representatives have inflamed their people against our defensive measures; they have attacked the possessions of our ally Spain; they have deserted the cause of other neutral states. These are the causes of her friendship to France and her hostility to Britain.
PS – we know nothing about Henry.
PPS - We did not incite the Indians to make war on you.
Sat 31st July 1813
James Carman of HMS Ulysses is convicted of desertion. He produced a Certificate of American Citizenship but the Court Martial deemed it a forgery.
Sat 31st July 1813
The British have published a letter intercepted from a New York merchant to Joel Barlow, the American minister to Paris, 5th Dec:
‘Dear Barlow, Madison’s election appears secure. We plan to start war next summer. The success of France in Russia will then be complete. We intend to set-up Armstrong for the next President. The north-east supports him and we don’t want a Virginian. You must support me by seconding his nomination and we will help each other. Get all the dirt on (Fulwar) Skipwith you can find – he would be an awful President’.25
Sgd F……n
Sun 1st Aug 1813 Extraordinary
Prussia is wondering why it changed sides. They received the Russians with hospitality at Konigsberg but the Cossacks could not be restrained from looting everywhere and the people were obliged to supply all their wants or be attacked. Berlin was occupied on 9th March and given over to looting. The process worsens as the Cossacks move west because hundreds of Prussian adventurers have assumed Cossack dress and are participating in the plunder.
The attractions of windfall wealth has greatly inflated the manning of Russian armies with volunteers. They seem to have mostly come from the Prussian army and Lt General de York, CiC Prussia, has issued a proclamation on 9th Feb calling on the people to deliver the deserters. Gold and silver has disappeared from circulation and the Russian army pays its way with paper. The Prussians forecast victory will be worse than defeat. The government of Frederick William has nevertheless declared war on France on 13th March.
The French are defending the line of the Elbe. The Russians reached it at Dresden but will have difficulty in crossing.
Sun 1st Aug 1813 Extraordinary
Napoleon’s Address to his Legislators, 14th Feb 1813:
France has proposed peace with England. This is our fourth proposal since Amiens. The British maintain their concept of ‘eternal war’ - they say we only want peace to restore our armies after Moscow. Napoleon urges his people to stay the course. The preponderance of the peoples of Europe are satisfied and only the British need be reconciled with peace for them to abandon maritime war. Britain has no allies except those whom she has bought. Once she is willing to make peace, we can unitedly enjoy the fruits of fair trade.
A bad peace now would destroy everything by allowing predatory British principles to remain as a threat against society. Her trade is limited by our control of her markets. Even America fights against her to preserve International Law and bring her to acknowledge the principles of neutrality. The World sends America its good wishes in this glorious contest. We wish America can bring Britain back to its obligations under the Treaty of Utrecht (ratified by Queen Anne in 1713). The ancient world has lost its rights; the New World is recovering them for us.
Sun 1st Aug 1813 Extraordinary
Joel Barlow, the American minister to France, has died of consumption on his return journey from observing the Russian campaign.
Sun 1st Aug 1813 Extraordinary
New York papers of 14th Jan say Congress has approved the construction of four new capital ships and six frigates. The Legislature of Pennsylvania has offered to donate a frigate to the Federal government. Congress is also debating raising 20 regiments for service in Canada. HMS Macedonian has been captured and taken to New York where it is being repaired for service against the British.
There have been several cabinet changes. General Armstrong replaces Eustace at the War Office, Capt Jones replaces Hamilton at Marine, Rush is expected to replace Gallatin.
Sun 1st Aug 1813 Extraordinary
The Frankfurt Journal of 11th March reports an attempted insurrection at Amsterdam has been frustrated. The leaders have been tried by Courts Martial - two have been executed whilst another four are imprisoned for two years.
Sat 7th Aug 1813
The unexpected result in Russia has reminded Napoleon of his own mortality.26 On 5th Feb after his return from Moscow, he established a Regency of his son, to be advised by his Austrian wife, in the event of his death. There is an un-named Prince Regent and other dignitaries mentioned in the Decree who will administer France during the boy’s minority.
Sat 14th Aug 1813
George Canning MP has provided a literary inscription to the Corporation of London for their proposed statue of Pitt in the Guildhall. The Aldermen gave him a dinner afterwards.
Sat 14th Aug 1813
HMS Armide (Temple) has been preserved by a successful deception. She was cruising off Quiberon Bay on the south Brittany coast (the émigrés have Royalist supporters in Morbihan) when she grounded on Pointe St Jacques on an ebb tide. She was well within range of two French batteries, one of which hailed her for her identity. Temple replied “I am Commodore Rodgers of USS President”. The American frigate was then known to be cruising in the Channel. The French offered assistance which was declined.
At the next tide HMS Armide floated off and sailed away but Temple could not resist hoisting her British colours to undeceive the enemy.
Sat 21st Aug 1813
A meeting of the City merchants in the City of London Tavern has agreed to raise a subscription for Russia. The ministry has already obtained a parliamentary grant of £200,000 for the Tsar. All of Europe was closed to us by Napoleon until the Tsar broke the French grip on the continent. Russian exports are almost entirely sent to England and paid for in English manufactures and colonial goods. Russian exports are essential to our maritime supremacy and her imports are a useful market for our trading and manufacturing classes. The salvation of Russia is also the salvation of England – we should be grateful.
The Tsar never asked for a subsidy but has achieved what all the subsidy-seeking powers could not achieve - he has a claim on us. Chairman Manning then read a list of subscriptions that had been pledged. Most of the subscribers are MPs and some are merchants. By 25th Feb, they had collected £59,000. Another subscription at the Crown and Anchor Tavern has collected £29,000.
Sat 4th Sept 1813
The London subscription for Russia of 30th Dec 1812 is duplicated at Bombay. The officers and men of HM’s 65th Regiment have donated £150 and various merchants and Company officers have added over £1,000. Unusually for India, the new Bombay governor Evan Nepean is not on the list – normally the governor’s name is at the head of every subscription.
Sat 4th Sept 1813
Lord Temple, now Marquis of Buckingham, is the head of the richest family in England. He owns five great family estates and has amassed about £2 millions cash, the proceeds of his ancestor’s employment as Teller of the Treasury.
Temple is a frugal chap. Apart from the maintenance of Stowe, which his uncle (George Nugent Grenville Temple, son of George Grenville, one of George III’s earlier ministers) decorated before he died, he has only spent a little money on his new house in Pall Mall.
Sat 11th Sept 1813
News from France:
The defection of Prussia from the European alliance created by France has caused a shortfall of 80,000 – 100,000 troops in the united army which France will now have to raise domestically. This has created dissent, both in France and in the surrounding countries.
It was the influence of Baron Hardenberg that secured Prussian defection. He alleged treaty violations by France to justify the act. He says the French never listen to Prussia. The Treaty of Tilsit was harsh and humiliating and it was unbecoming for a proud nation like Prussia. “We have had to pay for French garrisons and other arbitrary contributions. Under the Treaty of Bayonne, Prussia had a fund for the Widows & Orphans of dead soldiers which had to be surrendered to France. Peace with France costs almost as much as war. France had occupied Swedish Pomerania without pre-advice to Berlin which felt menaced.”
Now it appears that Russia is stronger than France and might provide better protection. An alliance with her should better preserve the independence of Prussia.27
Russia and Prussia have offered Norway to Sweden. Russia wants Finland and Prussia wants Pomerania. Norway should satisfy Sweden for both cessions.
Norway is a Danish colony but the Danish King is Francophile. To get the Danes on-side, Russia and Prussia propose some Hanseatic towns be transferred to Danish sovereignty. The Danish King has not approved the deal.
Sat 18th Sept 1813
A detachment of marines is being sent to Bermuda for training as sharp-shooters. The Americans use marksmen in their rigging to kill our naval officers on deck. They are supernumerary crew and not required for manning the guns or working the ship. They are armed with muskets and the new rifle guns. We propose to do the same. Several marines are to be trained in marksmanship and attached to each ship in the fleet.
Mon 20th Sept 1813 Extraordinary
News from Europe in March 1813 suggests the Continental System is in tatters and the people are demanding wealth such as the British can offer. The Hanseatic towns, Westphalia and the Dutch are all in rebellion. Russian troops are welcomed and the Prussians are bent on revenge. England is sending goods under convoy to the Weser and Ems. The British Governor of Heligoland reports Hamburg is occupied by Russia and many Hamburg youths are joining the Russian forces as volunteers – they are called the Hanseatic Legion; The people of Hanover want British protection.
Only the Danes are enemies of France’s enemies. Alquier, the French ambassador to Copenhagen, has obtained Danish agreement to send two regiments to Hamburg to support the Customs Officers enforcing the exclusive system. They have executed some merchants. They have sent a fleet of gunboats to disrupt British trade between Heligoland and Hamburg.
Mon 20th Sept 1813 Extraordinary
Madison has been re-elected President and has made an anti-British speech that was well received.
Sat 25th Sept 1813
A couple of unidentified old coffins - one lead, one stone - have been found at St George’s Chapel, Windsor. The Prince Regent attended their opening. The lead coffin contained the martyr Charles I. When they lifted the body, the head fell off revealing the irregular axe fissure – the parts had only been glued together.
A check of the records revealed that an application had been made to bury Charles I in the Chapel of Henry VII in the church of Westminster Abbey but was denied by the then government as likely to form a focus of discontent. A further application later in 1648 to bury him at Windsor was approved as Charles I had been sovereign of the Order of the Garter and some other Kings (Henry VI, Edward IV) were already there. At first it was planned to ensconce him with Henry VIII in Cardinal Wolsey’s tomb-house but Henry’s suppression of the Catholic abbeys and monasteries was thought to make him an unsuitable partner for eternity so Charles went in with Edward IV who was his lineal ancestor.
The stone coffin contained the skull and limbs of Henry VIII. The coffin of Jane Seymour was placed nearby.
Sat 25th Sept 1813
The American Committee of Foreign Relations has proposed heavy fines on any American warships or merchantmen that employ foreign sailors. On passing this legislation, the Americans sent peace proposals to our Admiral at Halifax.
Sat 25th Sept 1813
Our merchants at Heligoland have received large orders from Hamburg, Bremen and the other commercial centres of N W Europe. All our colonial produce has doubled in price. 56 boats had arrived at Heligoland from the Elbe and Weser rivers with purchase orders.
Sat 25th Sept 1813
The Austrian army of 80,000 men in Germany has come over to the Russians. A further Austrian army of 100,000 men is being sent into Italy.
Sat 25th Sept 1813
The Danish Court agreed to join the Russian and British cause at end March. That agreement was reached by Count Stroganoff and Admiral Morris. Count Bernstoff is going to London to finalise the treaty. Morris obtained Danish agreement to free navigation of the Oresund and the Elbe.
Sat 25th Sept 1813
Count von Wittgenstein’s Russian army is in Hanover and has published a Proclamation to the German people – any person helping or supplying the French will be tried by Court Martial for Treason.
All of North Germany is in insurrection. They want trade not social justice, individual wealth not shared poverty. Wittgenstein calls his Tsar ‘Alexander the Liberator’ - no suggestion of Alexander as the last feudal monarch of Europe there. Wittgenstein commands both the Russian and Prussian armies.
He made a second Proclamation saying he has ‘come to break the chains of the people and restore them to their lawful Kings. The time for weeping has ended, the time for revenge has arrived. Join me in freeing your countrymen who still groan under the yoke,’ etc.
The French commandant at Otterberg has warned that any Germans who carry arms will be shot.
Sat 25th Sept 1813
The King of Sweden has reoccupied Pomerania and pledged his country to war with France. He says unilateral French treaty breaches absolve him from performance of those agreements.28
Sat 25th Sept 1813
Britain is sending the German Legion to Hanover as quickly as possible to ensure its sovereignty is reserved to the House of Brunswick.
Sat 25th Sept 1813
Britain has stopped exchanging prisoners with America. Admiral Warren at Halifax has received an American note demanding the exchange of naturalised Americans who were born British. Britain does not permit naturalisation by its citizens – once British, always British.
Sat 9th Oct 1813
Private London merchants say the import of American cotton is continuing in spite of the war. It is conducted in neutral ships so we do not even get the advantage of the freight. Applications for Licences to indulge in this trade are refused but the government tells applicants that licences are unnecessary – it is a legal trade unless an Order-in-Council is issued against it.
This has depressed the price of Bengal cotton in London.
It is a strange situation – we are at war with America but are receiving an import trade from her which we cannot pay for by exports and can only return specie. The ministry seems to have decided to contribute to America’s war effort against us as they were formerly doing for France (via the Licensing mechanism) until Russia intervened. Perhaps they find war more profitable that peace.
Sat 9th Oct 1813
When the Russians occupied Hamburg they took all the French Customs Officers under their protection. In Hanover, where the Russians will not go (pending the arrival of an army from England), the mob was unrestrained. Several Customs officers had their ears and noses amputated and a few were crucified. The Hanoverians were more barbarous than the other Germans.
Sat 9th Oct 1813
John Bernard Trotter, the Secretary of the late C J Fox, has been imprisoned at Wexford for debt. Jane, his wife, and James McManus, a friend, were accused of attempting to free Trotter from the Sheriff and also briefly detained but were released after enquiries by the magistrate.
Sat 9th Oct 1813
The best bit of patronage in the Lord Chancellor’s gift is the Secretaryship of Bankrupts. He has given it to Burrell, a relation of Lady Eldon’s. Its worth at least £4,000 a year.
Sat 9th Oct 1813
President Madison has sent a secret message to Congress on 20th Jan adverting to ‘an unfavourable development’ in the country’s relations with France.
The Senate has also received a government report totalling the number of foreign seamen who have naturalised as Americans since 1796 at 1,530.
Sat 9th Oct 1813
London Morning Chronicle 23rd March – HMS Dotterell has brought proposals from Madison for an armistice to permit peace negotiations. The proposal is already before Congress. He says America will make it an offence to employ British seamen in American ships; he will prevent British seamen resident in America from naturalising as Americans; he wants to discuss an exchange of British and American seamen.
France has sent Bassan to negotiate the release of the French prisoners we hold. We sent him back. Napoleon’s grand armee is destroyed. This is not the time for England to return 50,000 Frenchmen.
Sat 16th Oct 1813
Sir Samuel Romilly is trying to repeal the law that makes shoplifting (of 5/- or more) a capital offence. He has succeeded twice in the Commons but has just been rebuffed (for a third time) in the Lords.
Sat 16th Oct 1813
Until March 1812 rice was selling throughout England at 2½d a pound. It is now (March 1813) 10d to 1/- a pound.
Sat 16th Oct 1813
The Royal Duke of Cumberland is going to Berlin for discussions with the Prussian Court and will then assume the government of Hanover.
Sat 16th Oct 1813
Russia has offered her mediation in our quarrel with America but we have declined it. We have another plan.
Capt Hanchett has been given the command of a squadron of 7 warships, equipped with 10,000 Congreves, and sent to America. It is in the London papers of 5th April. He carries a detachment of soldiers and marines. There are also several fire ships that are to be used against shipping in American ports. The ministry says Madison is not conciliatory. He does not submit to British control of the high seas.
The blockade of Chesapeake Bay is now effective and Hanchett’s force is said to be intended for action against other American ports.
The ministry has ceased providing Licences to American ships.
Sat 16th Oct 1813
The armaments manufactory in the Tower of London has been working overtime. 20,000 muskets have just been shipped to north Germany. Instead of the old polished barrels these are bronzed or Japanned and look smarter.
The success of the Russian subscription has encouraged London to commence another for the independence of the German states along the Rhine. Hanover is excepted. The Duke of Sussex is organising collections and had obtained large donations at commencement.
Sat 16th Oct 1813
Madison has called for $40 millions for this year’s expenditure. He plans to raise $24 millions in direct taxes and $16 million by subscription. The subscriptions are expected to come mainly from the rich New England merchants but they do not support the war and theorise ‘no money, no war’. He has received only $4 millions from the subscriptions so far.
Sat 16th Oct 1813
Dresden, 4th June 1812 – The Plenipotentiaries of France, Prussia and Russia have agreed to negotiate an armistice with a view to suspension of hostilities. It lasts until 20th July and 6 days notice of its termination is required. The line between the two sides is drawn through Silesia and Bohemia.
The terms and the delineation of the frontier reveal that the Russian reports of successive victories are nonsensical. Those uncountable Russian legions seem to have disappeared. In fact the French still have a numerical superiority over the combined allied force and, with 70,000 French troops in garrisons, they remain extremely strong, hence our willingness to agree an armistice. It is also the case that our allies sent their armies to the fight largely unprepared for anything more than a few days of campaigning. They have inadequate food and ammunition to keep up the offensive.
The Prussians are not interested in peace - they want all their lost land back. King Frederick William has told his people he agreed to an armistice to allow time to increase the size of his army. Only a clear French defeat can help him.
Sat 16th Oct 1813
Thomas Bonar, the elderly London merchant and Russian trade specialist, has been found murdered with his wife at their home called Camden Place in Chislehurst, Kent. He is a colleague of the banker Angerstein and a Director of the Bank of England, Their skulls were smashed with a poker. It was not part of the equipment of the house and must have been brought by the murderer. No robbery accompanied the attacks.
The footman Philip Nicholson is missing from duty. He had been seen earlier with Astley Cooper. Bonar’s butler named Dale had been recently discharged for unknown reasons. Bonar’s son is Colonel of the Kent local militia based at Faversham.29
Sat 23rd Oct 1813
York (Toronto), the capital of Upper Canada, has been captured by an American army of 5,000 under General Dearborn on 26th April 1812. General Sheafe, the British commandant of York, has retreated with most of his regular force – he lost his militia and the Indians. The British are sending reinforcements to Quebec.
Sat 23rd Oct 1813
Metternich for Austria and Count Kusdenberg for England (he was Hanoverian ambassador to London) have joined the French, Prussian and Russian Plenipotentiaries in the peace talks.
Territorial trading has commenced.
France and Denmark made a treaty of alliance back in 1810/11. This ensures that France cannot now ally with Sweden which expects to receive Norway from Denmark in return for its support. The Swedes offered that deal to France, noting the feasibility of an invasion of Scotland from Norwegian ports, and were rebuffed. That is why they allied with England and Russia – those two powers have promised Bernadotte the sovereignty of Norway. When Denmark discovered the British guarantee to Sweden it withdrew its ambassador from London.
This leaves Denmark as the sole French ally in the Baltic. In the winter of 1812/1813 when France was in difficulty and evacuated Hamburg, Denmark feared it was threatened by England and Sweden and recognised the French could not give much help. Napoleon realised the Danish difficulty and agreed to waive the treaty provisions to allow Denmark to negotiate with England for self-preservation. Having promised Norway to Sweden, the British proposed to give Denmark an equivalent in France or the Netherlands. The Danish King recognised the delusive nature of the offer and the likelihood that the allies were more concerned to cut him off from France.
Prince Dolgorouki was then sent to Copenhagen with a new offer whereby Britain would guarantee Norway to Denmark on the pretext that the Swedes had not exerted themselves sufficiently in consideration of the £300,000 we had paid for their support (they only sent a small detachment of troops to re-occupy Swedish Pomerania). The Danes signed-up to this perfidious offer and agreed to secure Hamburg.
It is also said that England would welcome a deal whereby in exchange for Norway, Denmark gets the sovereignty of Hamburg and some other Hanseatic towns on the south Baltic coast.
Sat 23rd Oct 1813
Napoleon has proposed a peace congress at Prague. He already has Austrian agreement. On the French side will be Denmark, USA, Spain (the King lives in France), Bavaria, Switzerland and all the allied states along the Rhine and in north Italy. On the other side will be Russia, England, Prussia and the Spanish insurgents.
Napoleon supposes that England will not wish to defend her principle of individual self-interest to the international community as they had all signed the Treaty of Utrecht and will be unwilling to relinquish their maritime rights to England.
Sat 23rd Oct 1813
The Friends of Independence in Germany held a dinner at the London Tavern on 10th May. The Royal Duke of Sussex was in the chair. Sussex told the meeting that they had the support of the Prince Regent, who had subscribed £100 to the aims of the Friends. The Duke of York sent his apologies and a £100 donation as well. £13,530 has already been collected and £2,000 more was promised at the dinner. Sussex said £2,000 had already been sent to Dr von Ess of Westfeldt and Dr Prest who were stimulating the people of the German states to independence. The Duke of Brunswick sent his apologies with a donation of 50 guineas.
Count Munster, the Duke of Kent, also attended. He told the meeting he had commenced his military career in the Hanoverian Guards. Although born in England, he loved Germany where he spent his early years and would give his life for German independence. Anyone wishing to join the Hanoverian regiments or the troops of the Hanseatic towns would be provided free-of-charge with uniform, gun, accoutrements and transport by the British government.
The party toasted Deutsche weiber, Deutsche madchen to great applause and ‘the daughter of Hetman Matvei Platoff – may success attend her husband and Europe’.30
The meeting drank a toast to the Hanseatic Legion and to independence - ‘may the morning star of German liberty shine over the ruins of despotism’.
The Emperor Alexander was also toasted as the Liberator of Europe.
Sat 30th Oct 1813
New Scandinavian of 31st May expresses the Swedish view of affairs:
England, Russia and Prussia have guaranteed the sovereignty of Norway to Sweden - its in a treaty signed 3rd March. They promise to use force to wrest Norway from Denmark, if necessary. It is obvious from geography that Scandinavia should be one country (Russia has taken Finland and declines to return it, so Sweden is expecting a quid pro quo in Norway, the colony of Denmark, Napoleon’s ally). England also guarantees the colony of Guadeloupe to Sweden under this Treaty. In return Sweden opens its ports to British manufactures and colonial goods at an ad valorem duty of 2%. There is an MFN clause too.
The King of Denmark, as present owner, has not agreed to relinquish Norway. Our dextrous policy has so far kept us out of the war but it may be necessary to enter the Danish homelands to encourage that King to surrender his colony. Our Crown Prince Bernadotte will lead the army in person. England is paying us £200,000 a month for five months to fund our army. Bernadotte is going to Pomerania to unite with the Swedish army. May God bless his undertaking.
Sat 30th Oct 1813
A few months ago a creditor arrested the corpse of his debtor in London and kept it in his cellar, expecting the relatives to disgorge the amount of his debt in return for the body. Contrarily, the relatives sued and the Sheriff, sitting with a Jury, gave them their verdict with damages of £200.
Sat 30th Oct 1813
The Examiner - State of the Civilised World at end 1812:
In spite of the bloodshed throughout Europe and the onerous taxation of the British people, we are still the most civilised country in the World. We have enacted the abolition of the slave trade; we have ended smallpox by vaccination; we have spread the blessings of rational education.
Apart from events in Spain and Russia, we have continued our fond delusion that our interference in Europe has lasting effects. We are not more clever than other Europeans. We say Russians are more patriotic than others in accounting for their unexpected military success - they are actually slaves and have no concern for their government.
Wherever France has promised liberty, we have bribed the officials to restore the old order. If Napoleon had decreed the liberty of the Russian serf he might have made his trip to Moscow worthwhile but he says he could not loose their barbarous power on the Russian nobility without first making them his friends. Perhaps the only thing that could be more horrific than our endless war would be a revolution of the Russian peasantry.
England remains as she was at the commencement of the year, gazing wistfully across the Channel and ignoring her internal disorder that is Napoleon’s best chance for victory. The French rout from Moscow has made no impression in Austria or the German states. Napoleon has simply turned his attention from the East to Spain. Wellington has just written that he does not expect a speedy evacuation of the British army from Spain.
In the Baltic our attempts to conciliate nations and force alliances has back-fired. Sweden has played a clever game, always on the verge of sending her army but never quite doing so. Bernadotte avoided entanglement with either side (the Swedes are reserving their army to fight Denmark not France). The King of Denmark has shown himself to be the most deserving of respect amongst the European monarchs. He has ‘trod the razor’s edge’ in reciprocating Napoleon’s sense of honour.
In America we continue to reprobate the officials for behaving like independent people instead of colonists. Our aristocratic government holds those people in contempt. We have already lost one war to them.
We say the Spanish fight for liberty in Spain. They are against it in South America. It is probably too late for them to emulate the Portuguese and remove. Tyrannical aristocrats and monks are resented in their prosperous domains in South America.
At home we are considering the future of our Indian empire whilst the public-at-large does not care what happens to it, provided the French do not get it. An Indian government of bankrupt masters and money-making servants is not seen as a likely route to Indian improvement. The sword of ambition and the torch of Calvinism are poor instruments to convert the Hindu who holds it criminal to kill even a goose and believes that God manifests Himself in everything.
Sat 6th Nov 1813
The Dutch merchants of Amsterdam have sent an emissary to London to reopen trade. Their message has been forwarded to the Prince of Orange who is serving under Wellington in Spain.
Sat 6th Nov 1813
House of Lords, 15th May 1813 – Darnley has moved an enquiry into the Admiralty in respect of the conduct of the American War:
Darnley said the Orders-in-Council were the cause of war with America and their belated revocation together with the Royal Declaration of 23rd June were done only because ministers were frightened that the commercial lobby of traders with America and the manufacturers were together sufficiently powerful to swing a majority of MPs against the ministry. Threatened with the loss of their power, they became willing to address American concerns.
Ministers were informed in July 1811 that war with America was inevitable unless some change was made in the British position concerning neutral rights at international law. Had they then sent an adequate naval force to America they might have pre-emptively caught American shipping in port and deprived the war party of its maritime power. America would then have necessarily submitted to us.
On the contrary, no prudent action was taken, and we have instead had the unpleasant experience of USS Constitution predating in the English Channel and around the mouth of the Thames. In all the actions between American and British warships, the British ship has been quickly dismasted. Our masts are too weak or American shot is too big. Numerous noblemen (Stanhope et al) had made proposals to the Navy Board to address defects and improve our ships but all had been ignored.31
Melville for the ministry said Britain was forced into the war. We were negotiating fitfully and the Americans became impatient. He agreed that war had become foreseeable long before it was declared. When the Orders were repealed it was expected that war would be avoided. He insisted Britain was fighting for its existence and its continued independence. It could not instantly repeal Orders that were considered fundamental to our chance of success.
Our naval force at Halifax became inadequate because America added some 20 ships to her fleet. We had to reinforce the squadron in order to maintain the blockade. Very often the number of American warships in port was greater than the number of British warships performing the blockade. Blockades are seldom complete and some American ports are incapable of being blockaded.
Darnley says we should have sent a powerful force to America earlier but Dundas noted we were negotiating with them at that time and could hardly have blockaded their ports whilst discussions were continuing.
Another thing was the size of the American frigates – they are bigger and more heavily armed than ours and their hull-shape and rigging modifications make them faster than our ships.
Darnley says America has the funds to prosecute a war. This is incorrect. They have spent their spare cash on war preparations and can only fight on borrowed money.
Finally insurance rates from Lloyd’s for West Indies merchantmen is 1% higher than before the Americans declared war – hardly an indication that American privateering is costing us much.
Bathurst said the main reason America declared war when she did was to make our returning West India fleet amenable to her warships. Their frigates were ready before war was declared and immediately ran down to the Mexican Gulf. They were disappointed to discover we were convoying our fleets and the damage America did was little and inconsequential.
Darnley’s motion for an Inquiry was rejected 125/59 (these are mostly proxies – the actual House of Lords vote was against him 42/40)
Sat 6th Nov 1813
Burton Morris, Judge of the Palace Court (with jurisdiction in London), has published a new tariff of fees. He wishes to raise an additional £2,000 a year of which £500 is for himself. His act may relate to the recent legislative attempt to reduce patronage available to the Judiciary. Morris has taken this action alone and no discussions with the other judicial officers has occurred.
Crutchley, a Proto-notary of the Palace Court, objected. He was accused by Morris of misconduct and suspended from duty. He has now petitioned parliament for relief.
Raine MP said Judge Morris had done no wrong and the petition should be dismissed. Sir Francis Flood said it usually required an Act of Parliament to revise court fees but Morris is a sound chap. Wynne said he doubted the Court of King’s Bench could seize jurisdiction in a case involving the administration of the Palace Court and it was a proper matter for parliament. Brand said Judges can limit or reduce fees, why not let them increase them too? Lockhart said there are a million Londoners under the jurisdiction of the Palace Court and the matter should be clarified.
MPs then voted 16/3 to form a committee. As there was not a quorum in the House, the vote was disregarded.
Mon 8th Nov 1813 Extraordinary
A ship has arrived at Bombay from Basra bringing the overland news (it commonly comes via Constantinople and Baghdad, sometimes by warship to the Syrian coast and overland to Baghdad).
Austria has declared war against France.
Wellington has obtained a substantial victory over Jerome Bonaparte and Jourdan at Vittoria. Wellington has been made a Field Marshall. The French in Spain have had to transfer a large force to Napoleon and this has required them to abandon several of the towns they had been garrisoning. Wellington instantly marched his men into the void and has reached the Pyrenees.
The Frankfurt Journal of 25th July reports HMS Shannon has captured USS Chesapeake on 1st June. The Americans say she exploded as she came out of Boston harbour. The British say they boarded and took her in combat.
Sat 13th Nov 1813
The Royal Duke of Cumberland has arrived at Berlin on 17th July on his way to Hanover. He is travelling as the Count of Armagh.
Sat 13th Nov 1813
The Nuremberg Gazette says the Peace Congress at Prague held its first sitting on 19th July.
Sat 20th Nov 1813
The Russians have been keeping a tally of the dead people and horses they have been burning. They started collecting data some time after the French retreat had commenced and the early figures are not available but they have now (May 1813) burned 213,516 corpses and 95,816 horses.
Sat 20th Nov 1813
Before Russia and Prussia entered the German states, they made a secret agreement that, as they entered each petty state, the government would be handed over to Baron Stein for his provisional administration.
The secrecy and the consolidation of several governments under one nobleman, gave the allied progress an appearance of unification and alarmed Bavaria, Baden and Wurtemburg in the south.
Those three countries, fearing that alliance with Russia or Prussia was the quick road to self-destruction, signed-up with France. It was troops from these states and the Italians that gave Napoleon the edge in his victory at Bauzern. His own French conscripts were untrained and too raw to contribute much.
Sat 20th Nov 1813
Letter from north Germany, 15th June – It is rumoured that Murat, who had the Kingdom of Naples bestowed on him by Napoleon, has offered the Austrian Emperor 40,000 troops and his best assistance in driving the French out of Italy and restoring the Austrian possessions.
In return, he requires allied confirmation of his continuing monarchy. The Emperor Charles agreed if England, Russia and Prussia did likewise. England has now also agreed.
Sat 27th Nov 1813
The French recently established a uniform system of weights and measures (metric system) which has many advantages and the Scots have just endorsed the decimal principle for their measurements.
Sat 4th Dec 1813
The Rio de Janeiro Gazette of 7th July contains a protest of the Prince Regent of Portugal against the British cruisers off Africa who interfere in the slave trade of his nationals. He has called for Statements of Claim from all his affected people preparatory to launching claims on the British government.
Sat 4th Dec 1813
On 20th May the Comte d’Artois, his son, the Duc d’Angouleme, the Swiss Baron de Rolle and several other European aristocrats embarked at Harwich on the Lady Nepean for the continent.
Sat 4th Dec 1813
The Americans are appalled by the violence of American Indian attacks on their forces. An Act has been passed permitting the President to retaliate against any British subject for the barbarity of the Indians who fight for England. It sounds as though the war in north America will soon become as despicable as the war in Europe.
Sat 4th Dec 1813
John Senior has been executed at York for perjury. He obtained a declaration of bankruptcy by concealing some assets which were later found. Capital punishment in these circumstances is rare. The last case was John Perrot, a lace worker of Ludgate Hill, in 1761.
Senior was in the red to £13,513. He swore to the Commissioner that he had spent £5,500 on a woman friend but the Commissioner disbelieved him and so did the Judge.
Sat 4th Dec 1813
Napoleon is not a bad man. A few years ago the passes through the Alps were footpaths and mule tracks. Today they are post roads the width of three carriages. This would have astonished Hannibal but the French have gone further and would have also astonished Julius Caesar – they have drained the Pontine Marshes. This source of noxious smell and disease for two millennia is no more. The French solution to this intractable problem was to excavate a greater fall on their drains and make then considerably bigger than earlier attempts. They have diverted the sea water on one side and the run-off from the mountains on the other. They have used a considerable amount of Neapolitan pozzolana, the best water-proofing material known to man. The marshes are now transformed into 150,000 acres of fine agricultural land. There should also be a decrease in the malignant fevers that were associated with the marsh vapour.
Sat 11th Dec 1813
The old King of the Two Sicilies has abdicated. Murat is King of Naples and the old King’s son has taken over the sovereignty of the island of Sicily under the unique title - the Alter Ego King of Sicily. The arrangement has British approval.
The old King’s wife, who was the prime mover in most of the venal initiatives we objected to, has left with the King. The new young King is a modern chap and is committed to making Bentinck’s Constitution work.
Sat 11th Dec 1813
England is consolidating its connection with Russia. The deal Napoleon made with Alexander was between two great land powers whereas England and Russia is a much better fit. The Duke of Cumberland is wooing the Archduchess Catherine, sister of the Tsar Alexander, and has gone to St Petersburg to try his luck. Meanwhile the Tsar’s two brothers Nicholas and Michael are coming to London for a holiday.
Sat 11th Dec 1813
John Cole is a real estate agent in London. He received a commission from the landlord of a small unit wherein the tenant, one Ann Arthur, had not paid her rent. Arthur has an unemployed husband and four children. She has been earning for the family but not enough to cover the costs. When the rent fell into arrears, the landlord employed Cole to protect the contents of the apartment pending for a distress sale.
Whilst sitting in the living room, he saw Arthur take a box of dominoes, which had been given to one of her children since deceased, and give it to another of her children. Cole protested and endeavoured to take the asset from the child forcibly. Arthur intervened and Cole struck her causing an unexpected spinal injury and paraplegia. He says he was put in possession by the landlord and had a duty to protect the property.
He has been bound-over to appear at the next Sessions and justify his act.
Prior to the defalcation of Russia from the French camp, Napoleon was directly influential over 60 million people (France & Netherlands 32, the Rhineland 12, Italy 11, Switzerland 2 and Denmark 2.5) and was allied with another 20 million in Austria, 10 million in Prussia, 47 million in Russia and 2 millions around Warsaw.
At that time the United Kingdom population had grown to 17 millions, Spain 11 millions, Portugal 3 millions, Sweden 3 millions and Sicily 1.5 million. The trend of events and the decisive influence of Russia’s massive population in redirecting them in our favour is clear.
Sat 11th Dec 1813
Morning Chronicle, May 1813 - A broker at Lloyd’s of London is selling policies on Napoleon’s death. A premium of 4 guineas will earn a 100 guinea pay-out if he be dead or imprisoned before 19th June 1812. We tried so often to assassinate him without success – perhaps the gambling fraternity will fare better. The availability of this new investment has been also published on the Exchange at Amsterdam.
Sat 18th Dec 1813
The Danes are feeling isolated. They are surrounded by enemies who intend to dismember their country. King Frederick VI has set an example to his people. In March 1813 he sent all the silverware from his palace to the national Treasury. His Queen has sent in her jewellery as well. The people have responded with very generous subscriptions of their own. The Danes are quickly improving the defences of their ports and towns against an expected attack by the Swedish army.
Sat 18th Dec 1813
Austrian mediation at the peace conference at Prague is apparently biased. England has requested that all submissions be in writing while France said verbal submissions would be more flexible and conducive of an agreement. The Austrians promoted the English view which Napoleon suspects is intended to extend the talks beyond the armistice period. Napoleon’s problem is he sees everything clearly whilst others cannot distinguish a good deal from a bad one.
Sat 18th Dec 1813
Every British capitalist will buy gold for paper money, despite the ministry’s recent enactment of punishments. This has given rise to a delightful new scam.
A very rich man resides at Goodman’s Fields. A gentleman called on him, using the name of a mutual friend, and offered guineas for sale. The rich man bought the entire lot and paid with paper.
Moments later, the gentleman returned, the apparent prisoner of a policeman, who adverted to the earlier transaction and entered the house to search. The rich man is naturally expert at hiding things and the policeman failed to find any gold after a most diligent and lengthy search. He nevertheless arrested the rich chap and took his ‘two prisoners’ off to Union Hall in Whitechapel for enquiries.
On the way he offered to release the men for a reward but the rich man did not respond. Ultimately the ‘policeman’ simply walked away and the rich man went home where he discovered two banknotes for £800 were missing from his desk although all the hidden gold had been preserved.
He returned to Union Hall and complained. The banknotes had by then been exchanged for smaller ones and the police are now trying to locate the thieves.
Sat 1st Jan 1814
The French are showing a Tragedy of Tippoo Sahib in the Paris theatres. They represent Tippoo as the victim of British perfidy. We are said to have boundless ambition and approve of any means provided it leads to success.
They say we made Europe pay for a war from which we alone derive the profit.
The census of 1811 has revealed that London’s population was just over 1 million at that time. The next largest English towns are Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, Bristol, Leeds, Plymouth in that order, with populations of between 50,000 – 100,000. There are eight more towns with a population of over 20,000.
In Scotland both Glasgow and Edinburgh have a population of a little more than 100,000 and Paisley, Aberdeen and Dundee have over 20,000.
The total population of England and Wales now just exceeds 10 millions.
Sat 15th Jan 1814
The House of Commons Select Committee enquiring into the grain trade has reported that Britain and Ireland have sufficient arable land to produce grain for all the population and entirely preclude the need for imports. During the last 5 years the declared value of imported grain was £18,934.359 of which over one third came from Ireland.
Sat 15th Jan 1814
A profile of all the ruling houses of Europe - many inter-connections. More or less every King of Europe has a fief in Germany.
Sat 22nd Jan 1814
The Austrian Emperor’s declaration of war against France is published in English (the original was in French):
He says the Continental System was an attempt at the impossible. He complains the French Decree creating the 32nd military division to control the Elbe and south Baltic coast and regulate maritime trade. This impoverished the Confederation of the Rhine and the Kingdom of Westphalia (both Napoleonic creations). It appeared likely to complete the dismemberment of Prussia (by removing her control of her own coast) and make that country a French state.
Russia was concerned at the fortification of Danzig which had been declared a free port in the Treaty of Tilsit and by the friendship displayed by Poland towards France. The Tsar could only befriend France whilst a neutral buffer state existed between them.
Austria sought to prevent the French invasion of Russia but Napoleon only permitted unarmed neutrality and to preserve our neutrality we could only cajole and persuade. Austria had no grounds for war with France. Indeed we have been in reluctant alliance with France since March 1812, although it was an alliance contrary to many of our declared policies and merely to preserve Austrian independence. We gave France as few soldiers as possible.
No-one could have foreseen the result of that invasion; the rapid reversal of fortune that moved the theatre of war from the Dnieper to the Elbe. This caused a reversal of political opinion throughout Europe that coalesced around the alliance of Russia with England and Sweden. Prussia, Bavaria and the other German states changed sides. Austria sought to mediate peace but France declined to contemplate any diminishment of her recently annexed Empire. We allowed an armistice to create the conditions for peace and I sent a minister to London to ask them to join in the negotiations but they said Napoleon had used the armistice to re-arm and there was no hope of peace.
I was also affected by Napoleon’s apparent intention to eliminate Prussia from the map as reward for her defection. I feared the removal of Prussia might be preliminary to the demise of Austria. It was clear that Russia’s and Prussia’s interests were Austria’s interests.
Before this time Napoleon proposed the peace conference of Prague. We recognised that peace could not be had unless everyone wanted it and that was entirely dependant on the extent of negotiation that France would permit. France welcomed my suggestion that the British be invited and a maritime peace be obtained as well. They offered safe conduct through France for my couriers but they were in fact stopped and prevented from reaching London. I suspected a change in his policy – he wanted to obtain a maritime peace before a peace on land. It then became apparent that France did not deal at Prague in good faith. The minister sent from Paris said he had to await a superior officer who only arrived on 28th July. It was then apparent that the French Plenipotentiary lacked full powers. It was 6th Aug before he was satisfactorily authorised to the others. Then we spent days on preliminaries until 10th Aug on which date the Russian and Prussian representatives’ powers expired. I then resolved to join the Russians etc and make war on France.
Sat 22nd Jan 1814
The Government of Massachusetts has examined the Federal Government’s figures on British and French impressment of Americans and disputes them. Instead of 6,000 seamen impressed the state officials believe it is actually about 175. They say the bulk of pressing is done by England but France has taken a few men too.
Sat 29th Jan 1814
The American Federal government has opened a loan of $16 millions by subscription to meet the costs of war. Massachusetts declined to subscribe and we have now heard that New York was not much better.
The New York Bank, Union Bank and Manufacturing Bank all paid nothing; The American Bank and City Bank made tiny purchases; the Merchants’ Bank bought $330,000 and only the Manhattan Bank exerted itself with purchases of $750,000.
Thus the two wealthiest states of the Union have provided just over $1 million. In the present unsettled circumstances of the world, the only place Madison will get his loan is London.
Sat 29th Jan 1814
Napoleon has made a daring attempt to occupy Berlin and turn the Prussian army into allies once more. He needs the Prussian army on-side to prevail against the combined AustroRussian force combining against him. According to allied sources, several of his armies were defeated in late Aug/early Sept with loss of men and equipment and his plan is said to have clearly failed. This looks like the end.
Sat 5th Feb 1814
Napoleon is having difficulty preventing desertions from his army. It is the Germans from the Confederation of the Rhine who are mostly involved. They are exposed to the German press which has become Francophobe. The defection of Prussia and Austria from the French camp also influences them.
Sat 5th Feb 1814
Washington, 25th May 1813 - The Americans are in difficulties. Their minister to France has died and they are out of touch with that power. Their revenue has diminished with the stoppage of trade and they need to borrow to fight the war. They are being dunned 7½% on their London loans which discourages them.
Madison is appealing to patriotism but he would do better to appeal to their self-interest. He needs more victories like the occupation of York (Toronto). If he can convince his people that he can occupy all Canada and get that country into the Union or capture one of our West Indian convoys, he may still prevail.
Sat 5th Feb 1814
The Naval Chronicle, the newspaper of the Royal Navy, has commented on the use of oak for ship-building:
145,504 acres of the Royal forests are closed off to the public and used to grow oak for the navy. In 1788, the time they were last reported upon, the forests had produced during the prior 57 years an average of 1,356 loads of oak timber annually – sufficient to build one ship of 642 tons a year in the national dockyards.
At this rate of production, given the average rent that the land would attract if put on the market, this works out at £68 per load, excluding transportation whereas the supply of private oak timber to the dockyards is bought-in at £4. 5. 0d per load.
In 1802, when the country wished to build many new frigates, the Surveyor General of Forests told the Navy Board that the quantity of timber suitable for felling was too small to maintain the then rate of production.
In 1783 a survey of four Royal forests revealed the quantity of fallen and decayed timber exceeded the quantity of growing trees. In that survey six forests covering 83,738 acres were estimated to contain 50,456 loads.
In 1788 the tonnage of the Royal Navy was 413,067 tons; in 1810 it was nearly 800,000 tons and consumption was calculated at 100,000 loads a year. By 1812 the quantity of hull timber we used was 110,000 loads without considering masts or cannon-carriages.
Private suppliers harvest 50 loads of oak timber per acre. At their efficient rate, we would still need 220,000 acres of forest to meet our needs.
The article concludes with a recommendation that the Navy explore the use of Asian teak for its ships.
Sat 5th Feb 1814
British grain imports recorded at the Customs Houses for 1812 totalled £2,855,000, of which £1,641,000 came from Ireland.
Sat 12th Feb 1814
Copenhagen, 3rd Aug 1813 – The English papers say a debate has occurred in the Danish parliament on ‘the unworthy conduct of the British ministry towards that country’ (requiring Denmark to surrender Norway to Sweden).
In London Ponsonby requested in the Commons to see the correspondence received from British emissaries to Denmark. He was denied by Castlereagh. A Danish minister who came to London a few months ago says he was offered Hamburg and other Hanseatic towns if his country would voluntarily surrender Norway. These are free cities currently under French occupation. Ponsonby wanted to know if it was true. Castlereagh declined to say but at Copenhagen they say he is locating a quid pro quo for Denmark. The Danes would prefer to do the deal direct with Sweden, and avoid British intermediation. They think a direct negotiation has prospects of providing them with Pomerania or some other immediately useful land in the Baltic.
Sat 12th Feb 1814
Between 20th – 29th June 69 merchant ships entered Kronstadt of which 58 were British. Trade with Russia is resumed.
Sat 19th Feb 1814
Lord Walpole has gone to St Petersburg in August 1813 to meet Gallatin and Bayard and discuss peace with America under Russian mediation.
Sat 26th Feb 1814
Most if not all of the New England states have notified Congress in late July 1813 that they will withdraw from the Union if peace is not made with Britain.
Sat 26th Feb 1814
The well-respected French general Moreau, who is accompanying Bernadotte in his campaign in Pomerania, has sent his wife to England and she has rented the cottage of the late Lord Melville in Wimbledon.
Sat 26th Feb 1814
It has been revealed in London that the $5 million loan Madison raised to finance his war with us was subscribed entirely in London.32
Sat 12th March 1814
The armed cutter Badger, which is based at Heligoland to protect the smuggling trade, has been sent to Deal to report some news received at the island. Napoleon is reported to have sustained a severe defeat near Leipzig after a three day battle – he lost 7,000 dead and 70,000 prisoners. 8,000 Poles and Bavarians deserted to the allies. Napoleon himself was not captured and is believed to have gone to Paris to raise fresh conscripts. After the battle the governments of Bavaria, Saxony, Poland and Wurtemburg came over to the allies too. Total French losses were enormous.
The provinces of Utrecht and Holland in the Netherlands have declared their independence and the Prince of Orange has gone there from London. 6,000 troops are to follow him as soon as possible.
Sat 19th March 1814
Denmark has joined the alliance against France with 30,000 men. Napoleon has agreed to a peace conference on the basis that France will retain her frontiers on the Rhine and the Pyrenees but the German states, Holland, Italy, Switzerland and the Hanseatic towns are to be restored to their former owners.
The federative system of Napoleon is ended.33
Sat 19th March 1814
A year ago the French 5% stock was at 81, a few days ago it was 54. It seems the market expects a forced loan or a new issue of assignees and there is some risk of riots. The only government initiative was a new conscription of 280,000 men and the market digested that quickly. On 8th Oct the 5%s were at 55, on the 9th 56 and by the 10th they were trading at 60. By comparison, English 5%s are at 88.
We fear the conscription may not be as successful as expected. France raised a large army on Napoleon’s return from Moscow. At that time the French had little knowledge of events in Russia and Austria, Prussia and Sweden remained allies. Everyone attributed Napoleon’s reverses to the Russian weather. Now, a few months later, he is asking for another army at a time when all his European allies except Denmark have deserted him and he has again been defeated in the familiar fields of Saxony and Prussia. He has also withdrawn from the Iberian peninsula. He seems to have lost the magic touch.
Sat 19th March 1814
The Swedish King Charles, King of the Goths and Vandals, Duke of Schleswig Holstein, heir to Norway, etc., has declared war on Denmark.
He complains that Danish privateers have been disturbing his maritime trade for years and now the Danes have ordered their warships and privateers to imprison all Swedes found on captured ships as prisoners-of-war.
10,000 more Swedish troops are being sent to Pomerania (their army is now in Saxony)
Sat 26th March 1814
Charles Jean Bernadotte became the adopted son of the Swedish King Charles and has ruled Sweden as Crown Prince since October 1810. After Napoleon’s defeat at Leipzig, during the ten week armistice, Bernadotte wrote to the French Emperor setting-out his views:
“The Duke of Bassano (Maret) wrote to Olson in a way that appears intended to create discord between me and the Swedish King. It looks like the same tactic you employed with the Bourbons Charles and Ferdinand in Spain that facilitated your entry into that country.
“Sweden has been straight-forward with you. We blame you for our loss of Finland to Russia and expect Norway from Denmark in compensation. Instead of helping us, you have invaded our part of Pomerania and arrested a hundred Swedish ships in Stralsund. These are serious treaty violations.
“Bassano says you provoked the war with Russia. The Swedish and Russian governments foresaw the result of that act as early as August. Your grande armee of experienced and disciplined soldiers, the elite of France, Germany and Italy, was destroyed. That puts the total number of French victims of your ambition at over a million.
“You invoke an expectation of friendship from Sweden. I remind you that when we lost Finland, we begged you to preserve the Isles of Aland to us.34 You gave no help. On the contrary you complained of British commerce in our ports and told us to ask the Tsar.
“The object of the first coalition (of 1792) was to invade, occupy and partition France. Austria, England and Prussia were all keen. Sweden declined involvement and left the coalition because she had no wish to see our fine country dismembered. We respect the right of every country to its own laws and customs.
“Sweden depends on trade. We cannot produce our needs domestically. Your Continental System threatened us – we trade or die. Trade is what we have always done. You tried to change that. We withdrew from the conspiracy against French liberty in 1792 but now you conspire against us.
“Russia and England want peace. You have the best monarchy on Earth. Why are you always causing trouble? History reveals that all attempts at universal monarchy fail. Why do you think you are different? You should nurture France and heal the wounds of the Revolution.
“I am French. I love France. But I will fight France for the preservation of Swedish liberty. In politics, friendship and hatred are irrelevant. There is only duty to one’s people.
“Bassano says you wish to avoid a quarrel with Sweden. It was you who started it with your attack on Pomerania and our commerce at Stralsund when we were at peace with you. Bassano indicates you will not change the Continental System and intend to retain Swedish Pomerania until it is successful. In the past four months you have arrested our garrisons in Pomerania and sent them prisoners to France. You sought to bring that invasion within the terms of the Council of Prizes in order to reward your army. You should recall that the Council decided in our favour. You respond with blame for your Generals. When we arrested French privateers attacking our ships, we sent back the crews to you, even Portuguese, Algerians and negroes who said they were French. When will you return our soldiers of Pomerania?”
Sat 26th March 1814
Hanover, 16th Nov – The Duke of Cumberland has made a triumphant entry to this Electorate. The town of Hanover was illuminated for the occasion. He will stay in the house of the Duke of Cambridge.
Sat 26th March 1814
The Prussians have liberated Hildesheim from the French and restored that Hanseatic city to the House of Brunswick. The Prince Regent has sent the people an Address which was read publicly in town in early Nov 1813.
Sat 26th March 1814
The Landemann of Switzerland, de Reinhard, and the representatives of the 19 Cantons have declared Swiss neutrality on 20th Nov. The announcement was made at Zurich which is the seat of the Diet for 1813:
“Neutrality has assured the Swiss of tranquillity and liberty for many ages. Considering our situation and limited power, this is the only proper course for us. We do not expect to be molested but have placed our forces on the frontiers”
Sat 26th March 1814
London, 11th Nov – the Prince Regent held a levee today – the first for five months. A great number of Petitions were presented.
Sat 9th April 1814
The offices of M/s Thomson Rowan & Co, the English bankers in Moscow, were occupied by the French for administrative purposes during their brief stay and a large amount of documents were left behind. Mr Rowan has been back to Moscow and retrieved some.
They indicate the French grande armee on arrival had 1,194 pieces of artillery, 2,763 ammunition wagons, 561,000 infantry, 35,000 cavalry and a variety of engineers, doctors and other specialists to a total manpower of 616,500 people exclusive of camp followers. Rowan also has complete returns of French losses in the various battles on the way to Moscow.
Sat 9th April 1814
The American Treasury has notified the Executive that the cash balance the country has now, together with the estimated Customs receipts and proceeds of sale of land, is only $2 millions and they need to raise a loan of $5.5 million to continue the war through 1814.
Sat 9th April 1814
The expectation in Paris is that Napoleon will successfully defend the line of the Elbe until the peace negotiations are complete. They refer to the moderate line taken by Austria which cannot afford continued war.
On paper the allies can field a preponderance of troops, about 400,000, but the costs of maintaining these forces and their financial difficulties are always in their minds.35
So many coalitions have collapsed due to bickering and this one cannot be an exception – its one of Napoleon’s advantages.
Sat 18th June 1814
Half-pay is little understood outside the army. Until 1795 it was supposed to be compensation for past services. In that year Windham made a War Office Regulation that all army doctors appointed thereafter should consider themselves as liable to perform active service at any time after their appointments had expired. Since then half-pay appears to be a retainer.
An officer on the new full pay is adequately compensated as a national representative. When moved to the half-pay list, his revised emoluments are calculated on the old subsistence allowance only. Its not just the amount of half-pay that is objectionable, it also the uncertain way it is issued. This is a matter that has never received parliamentary oversight and regulation.
Sat 25th June 1814
Frankfurt Journal, 9th Nov 1813 - The Baron St Aignan attended Metternich and Nesselrode at the allied headquarters and proposed peace.
The terms he agreed to accept, after some discussion were agreed by Austria, Russia and Britain. They include the restoration of international law to its pre-1792 status – free ships make free goods - which the British ministry will never ratify but in the agreement it is simply written “freedom of commerce and rights of navigation” which may be adequately vague to permit consensus.
France retains her natural frontiers - the Rhine, Alps and Pyrenees.
The great principle that the foremost powers be separated by weaker states is to govern the settlement. Spain must be restored to its Bourbon former rulers and guaranteed independence. Italy should be independent but Austria may take a little bit. Germany must be independent and Holland likewise.
Lord Aberdeen, on behalf of the British ministry, agreed that England was prepared to make the greatest sacrifices to procure peace.
The French Legislature has requested the executive to obtain peace. However there may be an undeclared intention on the part of the allies to continue the war. Wellington has entered France in the south. And the two armies of the Austrians and the Prussians/Russians are in the north.36
Sat 25th June 1814
A new peace congress is being held on the French warship Chatillon which has been moored in the Seine about 30 miles from Langres. Napoleon offered to make a treaty based on the terms already agreed with Austria and Russia and a return of the French fortresses beyond the Rhine in which he has over 100,000 troops in garrison. It was rejected by England.
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Lay on Macduff; And damned be he who first cries hold, enough. |
Napoleon has confiscated the Estate of Talleyrand (Prince of Benevente), including his largest single asset - the Hotel de Richelieu in Paris. Talleyrand’s recent acts have been equivocal. Yesterday he was worth £500,000, now he’s worth much less. Talleyrand has recently been living in Rome with the (Bourbon) Royal family of Spain.
Castlereagh will represent Britain (he has Lords Aberdeen and Cathcart and his brother, Sir James Stewart, in his party). Counts Stadion and Raminouski and the Baron de Humboldt represent the other powers. Caulaincourt represents France.
Sat 2nd July 1814
Naples has agreed an armistice with Lord William Bentinck and has sent Neapolitan troops into Rome to secure that town for the allies. The Austrians have made the King of Naples (Murat) Grand Duke of Tuscany and a Field Marshal in their army.
Sat 2nd July 1814
The quotas of troops agreed to be mobilised against France are large:
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Russia |
150,000 |
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Austria |
150,000 |
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Prussia |
100,000 |
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Bavaria |
40,000 |
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Sweden |
30,000 |
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Saxony |
30,000 |
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Britain |
25,000 |
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Hesse |
20,000 |
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Wurtemburg |
15,000 |
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Baden |
10,000 |
Plus some smaller contingents from Hesse-Darmstadt, Mecklenburg, Brunswick, Saxe Gotha, etc.
Napoleon is in Paris and is seen in public everyday. He promises peace to the people.
Sat 2nd July 1814
House of Commons, 7th Dec - The Insolvent Debtors Bill is being debated in House of Commons. It is generally supposed to be a Bill to ameliorate the conditions of debtors but has a clause providing for capital punishment in cases of bankrupts concealing assets in excess of £120.
Serjeant Best (a barrister) proposed two amendments - that a debtor who makes an honest disclosure of his assets, surrenders them to his creditor and makes reasonable proposals for repayment of the balance should not be imprisoned. On the other hand those debtors who institute vexatious legal proceedings intending to delay payment to creditors should be imprisoned for 12 months certain. Both proposals were withdrawn after discussion.
The state of Newgate Prison was considered. Grand Juries are supposed to visit the prisons they send convicts to and the Grand Jury of London visited Newgate last week. Its report is embarrassing. The women’s section has facilities for 60 inmates but a population of 120. The space of 3’ 6” allowed to each woman has been halved. They live exposed to the weather and few have bedding.
Sir James Shaw defended the Corporation of London. Overcrowding the prisons of England with debtors has occurred suddenly. Its an aspect of the parlous state of the economy. There are over 300 debtors in Newgate plus 200 real convicts awaiting transportation.37
Tues 5th July 1814 Extraordinary
Allied armies have entered France and Napoleon has been driven back to Soissons. General Blucher claimed a decisive victory over the French at Brienne on 2nd Feb. He expects to be soon in position to severe the communications between Paris and the French armies. He has sent in the Cossacks whose approach has caused great consternation amongst Parisians.
Paris is assessed to be capable of defence – the Bois de Boulogne has been stripped of its trees to provide a palisade. The students of the Ecole Polytechnique and some Parisians are performing this service gratis.
The allies have a numerical advantage and can rest their troops whilst the French have to race from battle to battle.
Wellington is at Roquefort and pushing up towards Bordeaux.
Tues 5th July 1814 Extraordinary
London, 26th Jan – The Prince Regent has visited Monsieur (Comte d’Artois) to congratulate him on the impending return to power of the Bourbons. The Comte has gout and cannot walk. Monsieur said his brother, Louis XVIII, was fully aware of the debt of gratitude that the family had incurred to Britain. He hoped the allies would agree to hold the coronation in Paris and not Rheims as presently envisaged.
Tues 5th July 1814 Extraordinary
Lord William Bentinck on behalf of Sicily has made a treaty of alliance with Naples on 5th Dec 1813. If the two places are reunited, his Sicilian Constitution will entrench the more liberal regime operated by Murat.
Tues 5th July 1814 Extraordinary
Napoleon has made peace with Ferdinand VII of Spain on 15th Dec at Valencay. The treaty restores Ferdinand to the government of Spain. He eulogises the Spanish and British armies who have obtained this treaty of peace for the Spanish people.
This is annoying. For years we have been telling everyone we are fighting for Ferdinand although he actually repudiated our bribes and preferred to live in France. We say Ferdinand is a prisoner of Napoleon and cannot exercise free will.
Under the agreement, France and Spain bind themselves to maintain maritime rights as fixed by the Treaty of Utrecht in 1715 and considered binding international law until 1792. Ferdinand takes over from France the responsibility to pay the pensions of his father and mother.
The Regency we established for Spain has rejected the treaty. The Archbishop of Toledo, as Regent, says Spain cannot make peace without British consent. It will continue to make war.
Tues 5th July 1814 Extraordinary
London, 12th Feb – the 3% consols were 66¼ on 9th Feb and 71¾ today.
Sat 9th July 1814
The allied armies occupied Paris on 31st March. The Senate has been convened to appoint a provisional government. Talleyrand, Montesquieu, Bournonville and Kellerman survive the transition and are Senators. The allies are embarrassed to deal with Napoleon who was accordingly dethroned on their behalf by the reconvened Senate on 3rd April.
He got a reasonable deal from Caulaincourt on 14th April derived from the peace negotiations on the warship Chatillon. The main terms are:
He and Maria Louisa remain styled as Emperor and Empress for life;
His family continue to be Princes and Princesses;
The sovereignty and property of Elba is given to Napoleon (he alternatively asked for refuge in England but the British ministry was horrified at the thought of his clarity becoming available to Englishmen);
Maria Louisa (and her son) gets the sovereignty and property of the Duchies of Parma, Placentia and Guastalla (they contain nearly 400,000 people and produce 4 million Francs a year);
Napoleon’s family get 2.5 million Francs annual revenue from the countries they formerly ruled;
All the Bonaparte family’s private property is guaranteed to them;
In exchange for Napoleon’s investments in pensions, shares, forests, etc., he receives 2 million Francs annually full and final;
All crown jewels remain the property of France;
An armed corvette to take Napoleon to Elba and will remain his property, available to his use.
He may maintain a guard of 400 men on Elba.
It sounds like the basis to a pleasant retirement but whether the allies will ratify that agreement is a nice question.
All French troops are relieved of their obligations to Napoleon under their Oaths and the new conscripts have been sent home. A deputation has gone to London to bring Louis XVIII to Paris.
Wellington has entered Bordeaux on 12th March. Napoleon is at Montmirel with 80,000 men.
Sat 9th July 1814
The Pope is thought to be exposed to danger at Fontainebleau and has been sent to Limoges.
Sat 9th July 1814
The Bourbons are coming out. Comte d’Artois was at Amsterdam on 27th Jan using the title Comte de Ponthieu and accompanied by Comte d’Escars (a month later they were at Basel, still trying to enter France); Duc d’Angouleme is sailing from Plymouth to join Wellington’s headquarters at Bordeaux (where the people cried ‘down with the tricolor, long live the Bourbons’); Duc de Berry is at Jersey and trying to get passage to La Vendee; Only Louis XVIII remains in London.
Sat 9th July 1814
The Americans want peace and proposed Russian mediation. We told them ‘no mediation’ but we will talk direct either in London or Gothenburg. Monroe accepted Gothenburg. A British army with American Indian support has taken Fort Niagara. They took only 20 prisoners - the rest of the garrison did not survive.
Admiral Cochrane has sailed to America with a small squadron and another full cargo of Congreves. He will take command of British forces, replacing Sir John Borlase Warren. Cochrane has been given no powers to negotiate with the Americans as Warren was – we will not readily forgive US support for France. He is solely to fight and destroy and let the Americans clearly feel our power.
Lloyd’s report that on 17th Dec the American executive laid an embargo on all shipping in port for a year. This is reportedly in conformity with instructions the Secretary of State received from Castlereagh. A large number of American merchant ships tried to evade the embargo by sailing out before its formal notification but many were caught by our blockade. A considerable amount of prize money will fall due to HMS Dragon and her blockading squadron.
Madison’s policy in this war has been based on commercial considerations. He supposed Britain was dependant on America for timber to West Indies, for cotton for her Lancashire factories, as a market for her manufactures and, apropos the Non-Intercourse and Non-Importation Acts, for provisions. This was the thinking behind the legislation and Embargo and the prohibition on export of specie (gold and silver coins) – basically Madison sought to emulate Napoleon and bring us to terms by stopping our trade.
American agricultural products feed Wellington’s army in Spain; they are supporting British troops along the American coast (particularly in Chesapeake Bay) and the traitors providing this support to a national enemy are also bringing British manufactures into America for profiteering sale.
The collapse of French arms in Europe was unforeseen. That has allowed Britain to reopen the markets of Europe and she is now less concerned about American supplies. The shortage of cotton at Liverpool has been troublesome for England (the ministry permitted the India Company to bring Indian cotton) but Madison also has difficulty. He stops our trade, we stop his.
It sounds like a formula for ‘lose, lose’ but Madison presides over a democratic country and cannot afford to act unpopularly whereas Britain is an oligarchy and does as the ministry pleases – that is our advantage.
Sat 9th July 1814
The peace talks on the warship Chatillon in the Seine have broken down. Caulaincourt, whilst having adequate powers, lacks instructions and appears bent on causing delay. The French have fooled us too often. They are more skilled in negotiations than we are.
Its not just the maritime rights question. The English also intend France to resume its pre-Revolutionary size. She is to be denied her natural frontiers.
The French proposals that were agreed by Austria, Russia and Prussia as the basis to peace talks have now been repudiated at the insistence of England.
Sat 16th July 1814
Dutch merchants are again permitted to trade with Dutch colonies. We require them to get Licences from the British minister at the Hague or the British consuls at either Amsterdam or Rotterdam. They may only visit ex-Dutch colonies and no other places.
To ensure the Dutch are not enabled to compete unfairly with us, they are required to pay the same duties that British merchants pay at their ex-colonies.
Sat 16th July 1814
Pittsburgh, 6th Jan – the British landed 3,000 men at Black Rock, Lake Erie and captured the village of Buffalo. The American Major-General Hull and his entire force were obliged to surrender. Buffalo was burned. The Indians in the British force are freely permitted to plunder. The British are now moving up the Lake destroying everything they encounter.
Meanwhile in the south, HMS Herald has been distressing everything within reach of her guns or landing parties for 30 miles up the Mississippi.
Sat 23rd July 1814
The British are imprisoning captured American officers in Canada instead of accepting their parole and allowing house-arrest as would commonly be the case. The American government has now reciprocated with the detention of 46 British officers it has captured. The British are livid – reciprocity suggests equality, which they have withheld.38
The British belief is that the Americans must be brought to recognise their commercial self-interest lies in peace with England. They want the country to irrevocably eschew French principles. The Americans contrarily have taken exception to many British hostile acts and appear more united than hitherto.
The reports of the battle of Leipzig arrived in New York and caused no consternation at all – it seems the Americans are inured to self-sufficiency.
Sat 23rd July 1814
The French National Bank has a cashflow difficulty. It has 38,326,500 paper Francs in circulation (about £1.6 million) and cash worth 14,354,000 Francs (c. £600,000) plus 31,331,000 Francs in Porte Feuille in short-dated Bills. Its debts at the same time were 47,700,500 Francs (£1.9 million).
In Dec 1813 it paid out a nett 38.8 million Francs and in the first 18 days of Jan it paid out a further 12,230,000 Francs. After close of business that day the Directors could see no end to the excess of payments over receipts. The bank’s assets (reserves and Bills) had reduced in value to 1 million Francs which is little more than its debts.
The Directors decided that preserving trade was more important than the sanctity of private accounts. They have discussed their view with the principal merchants and will discount trade Bills to keep the paper-money system circulating but will in future only provide 500,000 Francs a day for cash transactions.
At the same time, and a contributing cause to the banking difficulty, Napoleon has commandeered essential supplies for his army - silver from public and private bankers, flour from the Parisian bakeries and the equipment of all horse-owners - all is to be surrendered to government.39
Sat 23rd July 1814
The attempt of the young Prince of Orange and his supporters to declare Dutch independence has met a reversal – Napoleon has arrested those 40 principal merchants and legislators who form the core of the Prince’s support.
Sat 23rd July 1814
A new palace is to be built in St James’ Park in London by the Architect Nash at an estimated cost of £300,000.
Sat 23rd July 1814
A gentleman named James, who is Joseph Bonaparte’s Treasurer, has disappeared along with 2.5 million Livres.
Sat 23rd July 1814
The allies have permitted 400 Cossacks to enter Rheims, the city of 40,000 people where, historically, the Kings of France have been crowned. Cossack activities are not reported. It seems to be a warning to Paris.
Sat 23rd July 1814
The Prince Regent has appointed Sheriffs to all the counties of England and Wales. They serve for a year.
Sat 30th July 1814
French news - The marriages of English women to French prisoners-of-war (detained in England on parole) are not recognised by the French government. Each couple must perform another ceremony in France to legalise their unions.
Sat 30th July 1814
The Parisians are exhibiting their usual pleasure in frivolity in the matter of the Emperor and his lady. She has remained a favourite of the people whilst Napoleon’s popularity has collapsed. A placard was seen recently “L’imperatrice est belle, mais il est damage qu’elle a un nez rond’ (sounds like Néron, the Roman Emperor).
A more vicious caricature has him seated on his throne, with George III holding his head back by the hair and Tsar Alexander administering an emetic. Napoleon is defecating the Confederation of the Rhine.
These amusements appear whilst Paris is surrounded by enemies and threatened by the entry of the Cossacks.
Mon 1st Aug 1814 Extraordinary
Napoleon abdicated in April. He will live on the Island of Elba which was long ago a possession of the Knights Templar. It has two main towns, both ports, one of which belonged until recently to the Grand Duke of Tuscany and the other to the King of Naples.
Elba was occupied by Britain in the Revolutionary War. After the Treaty of Amiens, Britain removed its occupation force and passed sovereignty to the King of Etruria. He sold it to Napoleon who ceded it to his brother-in-law Felix, Prince of Lucca and Piombino. Our withdrawal was a term of the Treaty of Amiens and it was the brief French re-occupation of Elba after we left that was our pretext for abrogating that Treaty. Elba has iron and mercury mines and exports a type of marble to the Levant. It has a fine climate and produces a broad variety of delicious fruits although the wine is not memorable.
Napoleon requested Elba for his retirement. His request for an annual allowance of 6 million Livres was reduced to 2 million Livres (Talleyrand reinstated it at 6 millions whilst in charge of the provisional government but the allied ministers deemed it was a clerical error for 600,000 Francs, about £24,000).
Peace was proclaimed on 18th April. The Bourbons are recalled and Louis XVIII is finally really Louis XVIII. He is coming to Paris from London. Comte d’Artois is already in Paris. The re-establishment of their House was not unanimously agreed by the allies but was pushed through with incentives. In fact it is only the Bourbons who can get moderate terms from the allies. This peace agreement will be a unique opportunity for France to thank that family.
Louis XVIII says his reign commenced from the time of the execution of Louis XVI. He is thus entering onto the 19th year of his government. He deems that all legislative acts in the last two decades were acts of usurpers and may not necessarily be ratified. It seems he does not intend to be popular.
Ferdinand VII has gone to Spain to assume the government.
Venice has surrendered to an Austrian army.
Sat 6th Aug 1814
USS President fought an inconclusive battle with HMS Orpheus in the English Channel in April.
Sat 6th Aug 1814